3 and Other Complex Metal-Halide Perovskites - ACS Publications

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Single-Source Vapor Deposition of Quantum-Cutting Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 and Other Complex Metal-Halide Perovskites Matthew J. Crane, Daniel Kroupa, Joo Yeon D. Roh, Rayne T Anderson, Matthew D Smith, and Daniel R. Gamelin ACS Appl. Energy Mater., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acsaem.9b00910 • Publication Date (Web): 24 May 2019 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 24, 2019

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ACS Applied Energy Materials

Single-Source Vapor Deposition of Quantum-Cutting Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 and Other Complex Metal-Halide Perovskites Matthew J. Crane,a Daniel M. Kroupa,a Joo Yeon Roh, Rayne T. Anderson, Matthew D. Smith, and Daniel R. Gamelin* Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States

Abstract: Metal-halide semiconductors exhibit attractive properties for a host of applications including photovoltaics, solid-state lighting, and photodetection. Among the remarkable recent developments is the discovery of extraordinarily high photoluminescence quantum yields in Yb3+-doped inorganic lead-halide perovskites. Whereas all previous research and development of such quantum-cutting materials has involved solution-phase preparation, particularly as colloidal nanocrystals, such methods can introduce both processing and technical challenges that limit the scope of accessible compositions, morphologies, and scaled-up applications. Here, we demonstrate a scalable single-source vapor deposition (SSVD) method for depositing highquality conformal thin films of complex metal-halide perovskites, including doped perovskites, over large areas at high deposition rates. Focusing on quantum-cutting Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3, we demonstrate large-area deposition of films with photoluminescence quantum yields as high as 183%, starting from single-source powders prepared mechanochemically from solid ionic precursors. We also prepare thin films of the solar absorber material (FA0.81MA0.14Cs0.05)Pb(Cl0.02Br0.14I0.84)3 to illustrate the generality of this SSVD method. These results demonstrate a promising approach to high-throughput vapor processing of metal-halide coatings for photonic and optoelectronic applications. Keywords: single-source vapor deposition, metal-halide perovskite, quantum cutting, mechanochemistry, scalable processing, solar

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Metal-halide perovskites have optical and electronic properties that make them highly attractive for numerous applications including photovoltaics, photodetectors, and light-emitting devices.1-4 In many instances, these materials are readily prepared from solvated precursors, allowing solution growth of bulk crystals,5-8 hot-injection and heat-up syntheses of colloidal nanocrystals,9,10 and printing of ionic "inks".10-12 The current highest-performing perovskite thinfilm photovoltaics have been prepared from solution,13-17 for example. In some instances, however, solution-based processing may actually impose limitations. For example, solution deposition of multi-layered monolithic devices necessitates the use of orthogonal solvents to ensure that underlying layers (such as organic electrodes, other metal-halide films, flexible polymer substrates, etc.) are not damaged. Common solution methods also cannot conformally coat substrates with irregular topographies, which restricts perovskite-on-silicon tandem photovoltaics to flat silicon surfaces, even though the optimal silicon cell for this purpose would be textured to boost its near-infrared response.18-20 Finally, although ionic precursors such as PbI2, FAI, and MAI (FA = formamidinium; MA = methylammonium) used for making lowbandgap hybrid perovskites are readily soluble in common solvents, other metal-halide salts (e.g., CsCl, TlI, AgI) are poorly soluble, limiting the scope of accessible compositions, film thicknesses, and morphologies.21,22 A general method for depositing metal-halide perovskites that enables conformal coating, eliminates solubility problems, and permits deposition of highoptical-quality films onto arbitrary substrates would thus be highly attractive. Vapor deposition methods may be able to meet these needs. Vapor deposition is already widely used in the optoelectronics industry, making it particularly attractive for integration with existing manufacturing. To date, however, the broad compositional space currently accessible by solution processing has not yet been thoroughly explored by vapor deposition. Here, we

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demonstrate single-source vapor deposition (SSVD) as a general, scalable, and solvent-free method that excels at large-area conformal deposition of complex metal-halide perovskite thin films over a wide range of deposition rates, including “flash” thermal evaporation. Using singlesource powders prepared mechanochemically, we show that such complex metal-halide perovskite films can be made from their ionic precursor salts by a completely solvent-free route. As case studies, we present results for two complex perovskites of timely interest: quantumcutting Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3, which has shown near-infrared photoluminescence quantum yields (PLQYs) approaching 200% that are attractive for solar spectral downconversion,23-28 and (FA0.81MA0.14Cs0.05)Pb(Cl0.02Br0.14I0.84)3 “triple-cation” perovskite, an absorber layer in state-ofthe-art photovoltaic cells with outstanding device performance and stability.29,30 The results presented here demonstrate that such complex perovskites can be prepared with high optical quality and compositional fidelity over large substrate areas. This work represents the first vapor deposition of quantum-cutting doped perovskites, with PLQYs near 200% achieved in highquality thin films. Previous work on vapor deposition of metal-halide perovskites12,31-41 has focused primarily on two general approaches. The most common approach has been multi-source coevaporation, which controls film stoichiometry and thickness by tuning the evaporation rate of each precursor individually (e.g., PbI2 and MAI). Vapor deposition rates of ~1 Å s-1 are typical. Multi-source co-evaporation is time consuming and requires frequent optimization of deposition conditions. The low sticking coefficients and decomposition temperatures of organoammonium ions frequently cause deviations from the desired film stoichiometry.41 A second approach is single-source evaporation, which uses a solid-state form of the desired material (typically a powder) as the source material.31,32 The most straightforward technique is single-source thermal

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ablation (SSTA),33 in which single-source precursors are rapidly heated to drive film deposition at rates that can exceed 1000 Å s-1. This approach has been used to create 2D perovskite LEDs42 and to deposit films of MAPbI3, MASnI3, and MASnBr3 perovskites for device and spectroscopic characterization.34,35,38 Between these two approaches, single-source evaporation is generally simpler and enables higher throughput than multi-source co-evaporation. Nevertheless, single-source deposition has not yet been demonstrated to produce heavily alloyed films or conformal coatings on textured substrates, and it is not yet clear if either of these methodologies can deposit doped metal-halide perovskite films over large areas such as the wafer dimensions of silicon solar cells. To make compositionally complex metal-halide perovskite thin films by SSVD, source powders were first prepared by mechanochemical synthesis using a planetary ball mill, which yields powders with predictable and controlled stoichiometries43 in near-quantitative yield.44 Powders of Yb3+:CsPbCl3 and Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 were prepared by grinding stoichiometric mixtures of the appropriate metal-halide precursors. For Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3, the mixture of white CsX, PbX2, and YbX3 (X = Cl, Br) powders turns bright yellow when ground in air (Figure 1A), reflecting conversion to the desired perovskite phase. Ground powders were then used for SSVD as illustrated schematically in Figure 1B.

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Figure 1. Processing of complex perovskite films involves (A) grinding ionic precursors into single-source powders, followed by (B) SSVD of the ground powders.

Figure 2 shows X-ray diffraction (XRD) data collected for the ball-milled Yb3+:CsPbCl3 and Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 precursor powders. The data for both samples are consistent with the orthorhombic

(room-temperature)

polymorph,

and

the

Bragg

reflections

from

the

Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 powder occur at angles intermediate between those of the CsPbCl3 and CsPbBr3 parent materials, consistent with a homogeneous halide alloy. Both powders show intense near-infrared photoluminescence (PL) at ca. 985 nm that is characteristic of Yb3+ 2F5/2 → 2F

7/2

f-f transitions (see SI). Very weak excitonic emission is also observed from both doped

powders. These results demonstrate successful synthesis of phase-pure Yb3+:CsPbCl3 and Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 powders by simple mechanochemical synthesis. Quantum-cutting perovskites have not previously been prepared mechanochemically. We note that manual grinding using a mortar and pestle also yields the desired perovskites, but with substantial impurities (see SI).

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These doped-perovskite powders were then used as source materials for SSVD of Yb3+:CsPbCl3 and Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 thin films onto glass substrates (Figure 1B). A full description of the SSVD process is provided in the SI. Briefly, a source powder is loaded into a thermal evaporation boat located inside of a vacuum chamber, which is then evacuated to pressures between 10-2 and 10-6 torr. The powder is then heated causing it to sublime and deposit onto on a substrate suspended 5 - 20 cm above the source at rates between ~0.05 and ~1000 Å s-1 (i.e., from slow to rapid, flash evaporation), depending on the specific conditions and desired outcome. For comparison with the powder data, Figure 2A,B presents XRD data for films of Yb3+:CsPbCl3 and Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 deposited by SSVD and annealed under ambient atmosphere at 250 °C for 10 min. The XRD patterns of the thin films are nearly identical to those of their powder counterparts, demonstrating conservation of the composition and crystalline phase of the original source materials. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy shows that the thin films contain almost the same concentration of Yb3+ (4.7% of total B-site cations) as the singlesource precursor (5.0%). Despite differences in the melting points of PbCl2, CsCl, and YbCl3 (501, 645, and 704 °C, respectively45,46), which imply a lower vapor pressure of Yb3+ relative to the other constituents, these results demonstrate that SSVD can faithfully transform powders with complex compositions into films with almost the same compositions. Notably, these films contain no undesired phases, underscoring the high fidelity of the SSVD process.47 For comparison, SSVD of a stoichiometric mixture of CsCl, PbCl2, and YbCl3 combined without grinding also forms Yb3+:CsPbCl3 that shows efficient Yb3+ sensitization, but XRD reveals substantial Cs4PbCl6 impurity (see SI). Similarly, solution deposition of Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 thin films25 was frustrated by poor precursor solubility, and a large excess of YbX3 was required to achieve sufficient doping. These solubility limitations yielded undesired crystalline impurities

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that decreased the atom economy and reduced the optical quality substantially.

Figure 2. XRD patterns for (A) Yb3+:CsPbCl3 powder (gray) and thin film (black) and (B) Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 powder (gray) and thin film (black). Both films were deposited at a rate of ~100 Å/s. Reference indices are shown for Pnma CsPbCl3 and Pnma CsPbBr3 (green). Absorption (blue) and PL (red, low-irradiance 375 nm photoexcitation) spectra for (C) a Yb3+:CsPbCl3 film and (D) a Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 film deposited by SSVD onto cleaned glass slides. The ratios of integrated Yb3+-to-excitonic PL from these films are 109:1 and 198:1, respectively. The panel insets magnify the excitonic PL of the powders. All data were collected at room temperature.

Figure 2C,D shows absorption and PL data collected for the Yb3+:CsPbCl3 and Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 films of Figure 2A,B. As expected, the mixed Cl-/Br- perovskite film shows lower bandgap energies compared to the Cl- perovskite film. Like their source powders, both films show intense Yb3+ near-infrared emission centered at 985 nm and extremely weak excitonic

emission.

Remarkably,

PLQYs

as

high

as

183%

were

recorded

for

Yb3+:CsPb(Cl0.5Br0.5)3 thin films grown by this method, comparable to the highest PLQYs previously reported for this class of materials.24-26 Overall, the PL characteristics of these SSVD 7



films are almost identical to those of quantum-cutting Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 nanocrystals and polycrystalline films prepared from solution.24-26 Previously, transient-absorption measurements of Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 nanocrystals and solution-processed thin films demonstrated that quantum cutting occurs within a few picoseconds, significantly faster than the nanosecond CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 exciton recombination.24,25 The observation of highly efficient quantum cutting in thin films made by SSVD indicates that this deposition method does not introduce competing recombination channels or otherwise interfere with the quantum-cutting function of these materials. Moreover, the SSVD films show markedly reduced sub-bandgap photon scattering relative to films prepared from solution, and scattering is minimal even for films with high (>2) optical densities above their band gap. This combination of minimal sub-bandgap scattering and high optical density is critical for applications such as solar quantum cutting,23-28 tandem photovoltaics,48-50 light-emitting diodes,51 etc. Collectively, these results demonstrate that quantum-cutting metal-halide perovskite films prepared by SSVD without the use of solvents show equal or superior optical and photophysical qualities compared to their solution-processed counterparts. Tunable film thicknesses from ca. 50 to 1000 nm and areal coverage from 4 to 230 cm2 were achieved by controlling the amount of single-source precursor added to the evaporation boat and the distance between the substrate and the evaporation boat. The largest of these deposition areas replicate the area of a 6" solar wafer. Successful deposition onto a variety of substrates was also achieved. For example, Figure 3 shows cross-sectional scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of a 130 nm thick Yb3+:CsPbCl3 film deposited onto a textured Si substrate via SSVD. Notably, Figure 3 shows that the Yb3+:CsPbCl3 layer coats the textured silicon surface evenly, including in sub-micron features such as highly confined corners and at

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the sharp pyramid tops. These conformal perovskite coatings contrast with those produced from solution, which are thick in the troughs and thin at the peaks due to solvent pooling and nonuniform evaporation.19 Conformal deposition of perovskite thin films onto textured surfaces is critical for production of high-quality quantum-cutting and tandem photovoltaic devices. This demonstration of conformal perovskite coatings by SSVD highlights the attractive technological potential of this method.

Figure 3. Cross-sectional scanning electron microscope images of an Yb3+:CsPbCl3 film deposited by SSVD from a single-source powder onto a textured silicon solar cell. The deposition rate was ~1 Å/s. (A) Low-, (B) intermediate-, and (C) high-magnification images show that the perovskite coating is continuous and conformal across the textured substrate, including in the highly confined regions between textured silicon pyramids.

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To explore the breadth of the combined mechanochemical/SSVD approach, we attempted to prepare thin films of the complex hybrid perovskite (FA0.81MA0.14Cs0.05)Pb(Cl0.02Br0.14I0.84)3 by the same methods. “Triple-cation” perovskite absorbers of this type have enabled state-of-theart photovoltaic cells with better device performance and enhanced stability compared to perovskites with less-complex compositions.29,30 Likewise, Cl- incorporation in such triple-cation perovskites improves cell performance via higher open-circuit voltages, reduced carrier recombination, and longer carrier lifetimes,52,53 but is challenging to prepare by solution processing due to poor Cl- precursor solubilities. In the present work, low-bandgap triplecation/triple-anion perovskite powder was first prepared mechanochemically by grinding CsCl, MABr, FAI, PbBr2, and PbI2 precursors at the desired stoichiometry to form a fine black powder (details in SI). Figure 4A shows XRD data from the triple-cation/triple-anion perovskite powder. The peak positions are consistent with the nominal (FA0.81MA0.14Cs0.05)Pb(Cl0.02Br0.14I0.84)3 composition, demonstrating successful mechanochemical synthesis of phase-pure perovskite. Figure 4A also shows XRD data collected from an SSVD film made from this source powder. These data index primarily to PbI2, which likely forms because of poor incorporation of the ammonium halides into the film, possibly due to their thermal decomposition. To address this deficiency, additional ~1.5 equivalents each of FAI and MABr were added to the source powder (see SI). Films deposited from this source powder then showed similar reflections to the initial perovskite powder (Figure 4A). Absorption and PL spectra of a representative film are shown in Figure 4B and are consistent with those reported for solution-processed triple-cation films.52 These results highlight the ability to prepare other complex perovskite compositions by this mechanochemical/SSVD route as well, in addition to the quantum-cutting doped perovskite

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Yb3+:CsPb(Cl1-xBrx)3 described above.

Figure 4. (A) XRD data from (FA0.81MA0.14Cs0.05)Pb(Cl0.02Br0.14I0.84)3 powder (black), a film deposited by SSVD of the triple-cation/triple-anion powder (grey), and a film deposited by SSVD of the powder with additional FAI and MABr (red). Both films were deposited at a rate of ~100 Å/s. (B) Absorption (black) and PL (red, low-fluence 375 nm photoexcitation) spectra of a (FA0.81MA0.14Cs0.05)Pb(Cl0.02Br0.14I0.84)3 film deposited by SSVD. All data were collected at room temperature. Overall, the results presented here demonstrate that SSVD of metal-halide perovskites from mechanochemically synthesized single-source powders is an effective route for preparing high-quality metal-halide materials with complex compositions attractive for next-generation solar technologies, including quantum-cutting spectral downconversion and single- or multijunction photovoltaics. This work builds upon prior vapor-deposition studies12,31-41 by expanding the range of metal-halide perovskite compositions, illustrating solvent-free production of both doped and heavily alloyed perovskites, and demonstrating conformal coating of textured surfaces with such perovskites. The ability to introduce dopants and to tune the halide composition, the 11



A-site cation composition, and the B-site cation composition demonstrates that SSVD can access a very wide composition space and it opens the door to simple, high-throughput, large-area conformal deposition of a range of metal-halide semiconductors for optoelectronics. The simplicity of combining mechanochemistry with SSVD also facilitates development and application of new materials without the hindrances of precursor solubility, solvent compatibility, or solvent-pooling effects. Furthermore, because mechanochemistry and SSVD are both industrially mature, low-cost, high-throughput, and scalable methods compatible with existing optoelectronic production strategies, the methodology demonstrated here appears extremely promising for future commercial production of metal-halide semiconductors for quantum-cutting, tandem photovoltaics, and other optoelectronic technologies.

ASSOCIATED CONTENT Supporting Information The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI XXXX. Experimental details, XRD data, PL data (PDF) AUTHOR INFORMATION aEqual author contributions Corresponding Author *E-mail: [email protected] ORCID Matthew J. Crane: 0000-0001-8461-4808 Daniel M. Kroupa: 0000-0002-2788-3670 Joo Yeon Roh: 0000-0001-9801-3069 Rayne Anderson: 0000-0001-8357-0452 Matthew D. Smith: 0000-0002-4197-5176 Daniel R. Gamelin: 0000-0003-2888-9916 Notes M.J.C., D.M.K., and D.R.G. are co-founders of BlueDot Photonics, Inc. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12


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The authors acknowledge helpful discussions with K. Parra. This research was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) through DMR-1807394 (to DRG) and through the UW Molecular Engineering Materials Center, a Materials Research Science and Engineering Center (DMR-1719797). This work was also supported by the State of Washington through the UW Clean Energy Institute (to JYR and to DMK via funding from the Washington Research Foundation), and to the Washington Research Foundation (to MJC). Part of this work was conducted at the UW Molecular Analysis Facility, a National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure site supported in part by the NSF (ECC-1542101), the University of Washington, the Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, the Clean Energy Institute, and the National Institutes of Health. REFERENCES (1) Dou, L.; Yang, Y.; You, J.; Hong, Z.; Chang, W.-H.; Li, G.; Yang, Y., Solution-processed hybrid perovskite photodetectors with high detectivity. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 5404. (2) Stranks, S. D.; Snaith, H. J., Metal-halide perovskites for photovoltaic and light-emitting devices. Nat. Nanotech. 2015, 10, 391. (3) Zhang, W.; Eperon, G. E.; Snaith, H. J., Metal halide perovskites for energy applications. Nat. Energy 2016, 1, 16048. (4) Jena, A. K.; Kulkarni, A.; Miyasaka, T., Halide Perovskite Photovoltaics: Background, Status, and Future Prospects. Chem. Rev. 2019, 119, 3036-3103. (5) Wells, H. L., On the Caesium- and the Potassium-Lead Halides. Am. J. Sci. 1893, 45, 121134. (6) Mitzi, D. B., Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Organic–Inorganic Perovskites and Related Materials. In Prog. Inorg. Chem., Karlin, K. D., Ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc: New York, 1999; Vol. 48, pp 1-121. (7) Stoumpos, C. C.; Malliakas, C. D.; Kanatzidis, M. G., Semiconducting Tin and Lead Iodide Perovskites with Organic Cations: Phase Transitions, High Mobilities, and Near-Infrared Photoluminescent Properties. Inorg. Chem. 2013, 52, 9019-9038. (8) Saidaminov, M. I.; Abdelhady, A. L.; Murali, B.; Alarousu, E.; Burlakov, V. M.; Peng, W.; Dursun, I.; Wang, L.; He, Y.; Maculan, G.; Goriely, A.; Wu, T.; Mohammed, O. F.; Bakr, O. M., High-quality bulk hybrid perovskite single crystals within minutes by inverse temperature crystallization. Nat. Commun. 2015, 6, 7586. (9) Kovalenko, M. V.; Protesescu, L.; Bodnarchuk, M. I., Properties and potential optoelectronic applications of lead halide perovskite nanocrystals. Science 2017, 358, 745. (10) Shamsi, J.; Urban, A. S.; Imran, M.; De Trizio, L.; Manna, L., Metal Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals: Synthesis, Post-Synthesis Modifications, and Their Optical Properties. Chem. Rev. 2019, 119, 3296-3348. (11) Manser, J. S.; Saidaminov, M. I.; Christians, J. A.; Bakr, O. M.; Kamat, P. V., Making and Breaking of Lead Halide Perovskites. Accts. Chem. Res. 2016, 49, 330-338. (12) Dunlap-Shohl, W. A.; Zhou, Y.; Padture, N. P.; Mitzi, D. B., Synthetic Approaches for Halide Perovskite Thin Films. Chem. Rev. 2019, 119, 3193–3295. (13) Saliba, M.; Matsui, T.; Domanski, K.; Seo, J.-Y.; Ummadisingu, A.; Zakeeruddin, S. M.; Correa-Baena, J.-P.; Tress, W. R.; Abate, A.; Hagfeldt, A.; Grätzel, M., Incorporation of rubidium cations into perovskite solar cells improves photovoltaic performance. Science 2016, 354, 206.

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3 and Other Complex Metal-Halide Perovskites - ACS Publications

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