Soaring Sixties takes off fine, lands with thud
Gil
T h e 1960's a n d early 1970's have been a period of intense a c t i v i t y i n chemistry a n d other sciences, m a r k e d i n particular by a deepening interrelationship be tween science and society. A m o n g the major trends of the 1960-72 duo-dec e n n i u m were: • the rise of e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m ; • rising concern about the finiteness of n a t u r a l resources and possible l i m i t s to growth; • the rise of consumerism; • the rise a n d decline of science a n d technology i n p u b l i c esteem a n d funding; • the beginning of technology assess ment; • increasing interaction of science a n d society, a n d increasing involvement of scientists w i t h society's problems; • changing priorities and patterns i n re search and education i n chemistry and other sciences; • r a p i d progress i n protein structure and molecular biology research, as well as i n m a n y other fields. P r o b a b l y the most important develop ment of the 1960's was the rise of en v i r o n m e n t a l i s m , changing the way that
society looked at almost everything. There were numerous expressions of concern for the environment i n the late 1950's a n d early 1960's. F o r example, i n 1960-61 the California state legislature pioneered by passing legislation requir ing crankcase emission controls on cars, a n d a number of firms began work on catalytic mufflers. In 1959 there was a "cranberry scare" after s m a l l residues of aminotriazole, a potential carcinogen, were left on some cranberries by preharvest spraying. A n d i n 1960 heptachlor was banned from use as a pesticide on crops. M u c h i n the manner i n which H a r r i e t Beecher Stowe's " U n c l e T o m ' s C a b i n " stirred the c a m p a i g n against slavery more t h a n a century ago, R a c h e l Car son's " S i l e n t S p r i n g , " published i n 1962, seized p u b l i c attention and cata lyzed growth of the environmental movement. Persistent a n d ubiquitous chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as D D T , endrin, a l d r i n , and d i e l d r i n , came particularly under fire as the controversy raged through the 1960's. Use of D D T i n the U . S . dropped from 78 m i l l i o n pounds i n
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1959 to 40 m i l l i o n by 1968. Increasing restrictions on D D T by state and federal governments were c l i m a x e d by an E P A order ending a l l use of D D T on Dec. 31, 1972, except for essential public health a n d quarantine uses, and several minor crops s t i l l being considered for can cellation. T h e c o n t i n u i n g pesticide controversy, government restrictions, and rising costs for developing and testing new products drove m a n y firms to cut back or stop R & D on new pesticides, or leave the business altogether. Another response has been to step up research on biologi cal pest control methods—such as use of pheromones for gypsy m o t h control. Besides pesticides, ecological concern a n d activities have spread to m a n y other chemicals introduced into the air, water, a n d soil. Y o u t h has been par t i c u l a r l y activated by concern about p o l l u t i o n . E n v i r o n m e n t a l controversy a n d research have focused on such sub stances as mercury, selenium, lead, c a d m i u m , a n d other trace metals, car bon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, phosphates, nitrates, polychlorinated biphenyls, a n d phthalate esters. T h e massive o i l spills of the Torrey Canyon i n 1967 and at S a n t a Barbara, Calif., i n 1969 woke U . S . and interna tional attention to o i l pollution and s t i m u l a t e d efforts to find methods of preventing, controlling, a n d cleaning up oil spills. Other focuses of concern have been biodegradability of detergents and possible c o n t r i b u t i o n of their phos phates to eutrophication, d u m p i n g of chemicals and other wastes i n the ocean, t h e r m a l p o l l u t i o n by power plant ef fluents, solid waste disposal, safe radia t i o n exposure l i m i t s , possible muta genicity and teratogenicity of certain chemicals, noise p o l l u t i o n , and auto pollution. Federal environmental activity and regulation have been stepped up year by year. T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection Agency headed by W i l l i a m Ruckelshaus began operations i n December 1970, to give a central focus to federal efforts at R & D a n d regulation. A n d i n 1972, C o n gress passed a water-pollution control law requiring industry to use the "best available control technology" by m i d 1983. A two-week U n i t e d N a t i o n s Confer ence on the H u m a n E n v i r o n m e n t i n
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1960 First commercial production of poly carbonate resins. First commercial production of polybutadiene rubber. Commercial production of polyisoprene rubber.
1961 Naphthalene made from oil by Ashland Oil. Enjay Chemical develops ethylenepropylene rubber, which reaches com mercialization in 1962.
1962 "Silent Spring" published. Polyester fiber used in production runs as tire cord. Polypropylene fiber marketed.
Spandex synthetic fibers attain market. Alpha-olefins produced commercially from petroleum feedstocks. Dow Chemical uses gamma radiation to produce ethyl bromide. Chemical companies' sales top $30 billion for first time.
1963 Large-scale production of straightchain alkylates for biodegradable deter gents. D u Pont introduces Corfam poromeric leather substitute. Oil companies, in a wave of mergers, acquire several major producers of fertilizers. Shift to biodegradable detergents under way with sharp upswing in capacity to make straight-chain alkylbenzenes. Ford Motor uses electrocoating process for prime coating auto bodies.
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C&EN Jan. 15,
1973
J u n e 1972, first of its k i n d , gave recog n i t i o n to the global nature of m a n y environmental problems. A C S , for its part, has p a i d increasing attention to environmental issues a n d problems. In 1967, for example, it began p u b l i s h i n g the m o n t h l y Environmental Science & Technology. A n d i n 1969, it released a report, " C l e a n i n g O u r E n v i r o n m e n t — The C h e m i c a l Basis for A c t i o n , " assessing current environmental science and technology a n d r e c o m m e n d i n g mea sures to use a n d upgrade t h e m . The need to reduce pollution has necessarily h a d great i m p a c t on c h e m i cal industry, besides just the pesticide makers. C h e m i c a l processes have been replaced or redesigned, costs have been raised, a n d some plants have been closed. F o r instance, the classic Solvay process for m a k i n g soda ash has gone into decline because of its chloride effluent p r o b l e m . M e r c u r y cell units for m a k i n g chlorine a n d caustic soda are being replaced w i t h , for example, d i a p h r a g m cells to prevent mercury p o l l u t i o n . A n d c h e m i c a l firms are looking closely at recycling a n d at r e c l a m a t i o n of by-products from wastes. Some plas tics makers are developing photodegradable plastics to solve litter prob lems, a n d the first c o m m e r c i a l product —photodegradable polystyrene cold d r i n k c u p lids—was introduced i n the U . S . i n 1972. A second major development d u r i n g the past 12 years was rising concern about the finiteness of m a n y n a t u r a l re sources a n d possible l i m i t s to growth. Concern over future shortages of such world resources as water, gas, o i l , a n d minerals grew i n the 1960's. F o r ex ample, a n a t u r a l gas shortage i n the U . S . was projected i n the 1970's, a n d there was recognition of an "energy c r i s i s " i n general i n the m a k i n g . R & D was accelerated to develop new energy sources, such as thermonuclear fusion, geothermal energy, nuclear fast-breeder reactors, solar energy, coal gasification. Increasing concern about the i m p a c t of rising p o p u l a t i o n a n d i n d u s t r i a l growth on the environment a n d l i m i t e d resources of "spaceship e a r t h " was given focus a n d brought to wide p u b l i c atten t i o n by a book p u b l i s h e d i n 1972, " T h e L i m i t s to G r o w t h . " A Massachusetts Institute of Technology t e a m , l e d by D r . D e n n i s M e a d o w s , used a computerbased world m o d e l to predict that if cur rent p h y s i c a l , economic, and social relationships continue unchanged, p o l l u t i o n w i l l increase a n d nonrenewable n a t u r a l resources w i l l be exhausted, followed by a r a p i d drop i n world popu lation. In the 1950's a n d early 1960's, S e n . Estes K e f a u v e r ( D . - T e n n . ) held hear ings on pharmaceuticals a n d brought widely p u b l i c i z e d charges of excessive profits a n d m i s l e a d i n g advertising. T h e safety of synthetic sweeteners—cycla-
6CT
mates a n d saccharin—was already being questioned i n the early 1960's. A n d the t h a l i d o m i d e tragedy of 1959-62—in w h i c h numerous E u r o p e a n children were born grossly deformed because their mothers h a d used the sedative dur ing pregnancy—woke p u b l i c doubts and suspicions about consumer product safety. I n 1964, the Food and D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n began reviewing drugs on the market for effectiveness (previously, only safety of drugs h a d to be shown) under new legislation. However, the p u b l i c was particularly aroused to defense of consumer interests by R a l p h N a d e r ' s "Unsafe at A n y S p e e d , " p u b l i s h e d i n 1965. In addition to their successful c a m p a i g n for safer cars, consumer forces—led by M r . N a d e r a n d others—began to demand better a n d safer products i n m a n y other areas. A m o n g c h e m i c a l targets of the consumer movement were food a d d i tives, pharmaceuticals, diethylstilbestrol, tranquilizers, oral contraceptives, f l a m m a b l e fabrics, enzymes a n d phos phates i n detergents, antibiotics i n ani m a l feed, hexachlorophene, sodium n i trite, over-the-counter drugs, a n d house h o l d chemicals. After debate on their safety for years, cyclamates were banned by F D A completely as of September 1970 under the Delaney amendment, because they were found carcinogenic i n high doses i n rats. In another consumer area, a longawaited report by the Surgeon General i n 1964 found that cigarette smoking is a p u b l i c health hazard, a key cause of lung cancer, a n d chronic bronchitis. The 1960's opened w i t h science a n d technology at their z e n i t h i n public esteem a n d support, a n d closed w i t h the glamor gone, m u c h of the public—es pecially y o u t h — d i s i l l u s i o n e d a n d c r i t i cal, a n d federal support static or de c l i n i n g . F r o m 1950 to 1964, total U . S . R & D spending increased annually, from 1.23% of gross n a t i o n a l product i n 1950 ($3.5 billion) to 3.04% i n 1964 ($19.2 b i l lion). Since 1964 R & D spending i n the U . S . has dropped steadily as a per cent of G N P , reaching an estimated 2.4% i n 1972. T h e cause was tight ceilings put on federal support. Since 1964, federal R & D support has grown by an average of only 2.4% a n n u a l l y , far less t h a n i n flation and hardly keeping pace w i t h growing social needs. (Federal support grew by 14.9% a n n u a l l y i n 1954-64.) Large-scale u n e m p l o y m e n t of scientists and engineers a n d financial difficulties at m a n y universities were attributed at least i n part to dropoffs i n federal R & D aid. Furthermore, c h e m i c a l industry R & D spending actually declined i n the years after 1965, when inflation is taken into account.
A l a n d m a r k 222-page study of basic research i n chemistry, the Westheimer report, was p u b l i s h e d i n N o v e m b e r 1965. A committee headed by D r . F r a n k Westheimer of H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y studied, w i t h A C S support, the role of basic research i n chemistry a n d what needed to be done to fulfill that role. T h e report described the m a n y con tributions of chemistry to medicine, i n dustry a n d agriculture, a n d n a t i o n a l de fense, b u t concluded that chemistry gets proportionately less federal support for R & D t h a n other sciences. It emphasized t h a t the current level of support was i n sufficient to provide necessary growth for the industry. Concern about the effects of past sci entific developments a n d about where science w i l l take m a n k i n d i n the future led to a move toward technology assess ment—to weigh the benefits a n d risks before scientific a n d technological de cisions are made and to a t t e m p t to m i n i m i z e u n w a n t e d side effects. R e p . E m i l i o Q. D a d d a r i o ( D . - C o n n . ) was a p a r t i c u lar leader i n this area. In 1972, Congress established an Office of Technology A s sessment. Concern about bioethical is sues—ethical questions raised by ad vances i n the life sciences a n d medicine —also i n s p i r e d efforts towards enabling all of society, rather t h a n just scientists, to participate i n decisions before irrev ocable steps are taken. A s reflected i n the growth of tech nology assessment, i n the 1960's science h a d a part i n more a n d more social a n d p o l i t i c a l issues, a n d vice versa. S c i e n tists a n d their organizations a n d soci eties, too, began to play a more active role i n society. F o r example, scientists were active i n campaigns against use of defoliants a n d tear gas i n V i e t n a m , a n t i ballistic missiles, the S S T , a n d con t i n u e d research on c h e m i c a l a n d bio logical weapons. Scientists were active in electoral politics, a n d on behalf of the rights of R u s s i a n scientists. Scientific societies, such as A C S , became more active i n p u b l i c affairs, stressing the re s p o n s i b i l i t y of scientists to use their knowledge for the benefit of society. T h e 1960's were also characterized by changing priorities a n d patterns i n re search a n d education i n chemistry a n d other sciences. F o r example, support for space research first rose and then fell. B y 1967, N A S A was already reducing its budget a n d personnel. In general, there was a shift toward work l i k e l y to y i e l d more i m m e d i a t e a n d concrete returns to society. President N i x o n ' s science policy statements emphasized the need to i n vest more i n c i v i l i a n - o r i e n t e d R & D to improve the competitiveness of U . S . i n dustry abroad and to solve social prob lems at home. T h e N a t i o n a l Institutes of H e a l t h moved i n a more mission-oriented d i rection, w i t h its " w a r on cancer" a n d war on heart disease, for example. E v e n
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the N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n , tra d i t i o n a l l y the place for support of aca demic basic science, m o v e d toward more a p p l i e d research support i n the late 1960's—for instance, starting its R A N N program (Research A p p l i e d to N a t i o n a l Needs). It was harder a n d harder to draw clear lines between chemistry a n d biology, physics, or other disciplines, a n d so other labels proliferated—molecular b i ology, biophysics, c h e m i c a l physics, n u clear chemistry, geochemistry, a n d so on. M u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y courses a n d de grees spread—chemistry a n d business a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , chemistry a n d educa tion, chemistry a n d law—as d i d courses on science a n d p u b l i c policy, a n d o n technology assessment. A few even wondered whether chemistry m i g h t eventually disappear as a specific dis cipline, absorbed i n i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y areas a n d other sciences. In c h e m i c a l education, the 1960's saw the i n t r o d u c t i o n of the " n e w chemis t r y , " modernizing c h e m i c a l high school teaching alongside the "new m a t h " a n d the " n e w b i o l o g y . " T h e C H E M S t u d y course a n d the C h e m i c a l B o n d A p proach were b o t h fully l a u n c h e d i n 1963. In college chemistry, a l a n d m a r k was the Snowmass-at-Aspen, Colo., confer ence i n 1970, m a r k i n g the 50th a n n i versary of the A C S D i v i s i o n of C h e m i c a l education. Themes c r y s t a l l i z i n g from the Snowmass conference a n d other meetings were the need for broaderbased, more generalized c h e m i c a l edu cation, t r a i n i n g chemists more for c a reers i n a p p l i e d research a n d for a p p l i c a t i o n of c h e m i c a l knowledge to solving social a n d environmental ills of society. A n international survey b y the International U n i o n of P u r e a n d A p p l i e d C h e m i s t r y found elsewhere s i m i l a r edu cational trends to those i n the U . S . In 1960, scientists at Hughes Aircraft C o . i n California b u i l t the first laser, producing coherent light b y i l l u m i n a t ing a synthetic ruby r o d w i t h h i g h - i n tensity light. A l s o i n 1960, D r . Robert B . W o o d w a r d a n d his group at H a r v a r d completed synthesis of chlorophyll A . In 1960 the m e d i a n average salary for chemists i n t h a t year was $9000 for B . S . , $9000 for M . S . , a n d $11,000 for P h . D . (compared to $15,600, $16,300, a n d $19,200 i n 1972). A n d i n February A C S moved into its new b u i l d i n g at 1155— 16th Street, N . W . , i n Washington, D . C . T h e first A m e r i c a n flew i n space i n 1961—Alan S h e p a r d made a brief sub orbital flight of 536 miles i n 15% m i n utes. T h e Supreme Court s a i d D u P o n t must divest itself of its 63 m i l l i o n shares ($3 b i l l i o n i n value) of General M o t o r s stock, ending a 12-year legal battle. H y d r o d e a l k y l a t i o n processes came into use, shooting petronaphthalene capacity from zero to 650 m i l l i o n pounds a year w i t h i n a couple of years, more t h a n half the naphthalene capacity i n the U . S .
ear A l s o i n 1961, element 103 was an nounced b y A l b e r t Ghiorso, T . Sikkel a n d , A l m o n E . L a r s h , a n d Robert L a t i mer, a n d n a m e d lawrencium after E r n e s t O . Lawrence. T h e structure a n d synthesis of luciferin—key component of the firefly's l i g h t - e m i t t i n g system— were reported by D r . E m i l W h i t e and his coworkers at Johns H o p k i n s University. A t o m i c absorption spectroscopy a n d neutron a c t i v a t i o n analysis were begin n i n g to find uses. Pfizer's measles vac cine was undergoing large field trials. A n d a new table of atomic weights, based o n carbon-12 instead of natural oxygen, was adopted b y I U P A C . A n d A C S began its " M e n a n d M o l e c u l e s " radio program. One of the outstanding chemical events of 1962 was the finding that rare gases—xenon a n d radon—react quite easily w i t h fluorine, overthrowing long standing notions about the "inertness" of rare gases. D r . N e i l Bartlett of the University of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a made the first true xenon compound, xenon hexafluoroplatinate. A group at Argonne N a t i o n a l Laboratory synthesized xenon tetrafluoride, later i n 1962. X e n o n d i fluoride, xenon oxyfluorides, radon fluoride, a n d k r y p t o n tetrafluoride were also prepared i n several labs. A l s o i n 1962, a team at Pfizer i n col laboration w i t h D r . W o o d w a r d of H a r v a r d c o m p l e t e d the first total synthesis of a true tetracycline antibiotic. C h e m ist L i n u s P a u l i n g earned a second N o b e l P r i z e , this t i m e for Peace for his efforts against nuclear weapons and war. In 1963, D r . Bert Vallee a n d his col leagues at H a r v a r d isolated and purified from h u m a n liver a zinc metalloenzyme, alcohol dehydrogenase, w h i c h catalyzes o x i d a t i o n of alcohol to acetaldehyde. In 1964, a p h y s i c a l chemist, D r . D o n a l d H o r n i g of Princeton, was named to succeed D r . Jerome Weisner as Presi dential science adviser. After nearly 22 years of government control G A F was t u r n e d over to private ownership. In 1965, A C S membership reached 100,000 for the first t i m e . B r u c e Boyles of A m e r i c a n C y a n a m i d was the 100,000th member. ( A C S membership on N o v . 30,1972, was about 111,000.) In 1966, a n U p j o h n team l e d by D r . J o h n P i k e a n d D r . P h i l i p B e a l com pleted the first synthesis of a naturally occurring, biologically active prosta g l a n d i n metabolite, d i h y d r o - P G E 2 - P r i m a r y prostaglandins were synthesized i n subsequent years by U p j o h n scientists a n d several other groups, i n particular a H a r v a r d team l e d b y D r . E l i a s J . Corey. In 1967, a n insect juvenile hormone was isolated a n d its structure deter m i n e d for the first t i m e . A University
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• •
GO* of W i s c o n s i n team led by D r . Herbert Roller, w i t h D r . C . Sweeley of the U n i versity of P i t t s b u r g h , found that the structure of the hormone of the adult male cecropia m o t h was a tridecadienoate. A b u s e of narcotics was becoming a serious problem by 1967, and c h e m i c a l research on analysis, detection, a n d physiological action of narcotics, a n d on narcotic antagonists, was increased. A l s o i n 1968, the a n t i b i o t i c t e r r a m y c i n —one of the most complex tetracyclines —was synthesized by D r . H a n s M u x feldt of C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , c u l m i n a t i n g 10 years of research. T h e year ended w i t h the first flight by m a n beyond the earth's gravitational pull—as A p o l l o 8 carried F r a n k B o r m a n , James L o v e l l , a n d W i l l i a m Anders on a 20-hour lunar orbit at C h r i s t m a s t i m e . A n d i n 1969, N e i l A r m s t r o n g a n d E d w i n " B u z z " A l d r i n made man's first l a n d i n g on the m o o n . A p o l l o 11 reached the moon on J u l y 20, a n d M r . A r m strong took "one s m a l l step for a m a n , one giant leap for m a n k i n d . " In 1969 also, a plastic artificial heart was t r i e d on a h u m a n patient for the first t i m e , keeping alive for 2% days H a s k e l l K a r p , a patient of D r . D e n t o n Cooley's. D r . Eugene v a n T a m e l e n of Stanford developed a novel nitrogen
Nobelists in chemistry 1960 Willard Libby (Chemistry) Development of technique of radiocarbon dating 1961 Melvin Calvin (Chemistry) Study of chemical steps that take place during photosynthesis 1965 Robert B . Woodward (Chemistry) Synthesis of sterols, chlorophyll, and other substances once thought to be produced only by living things 1966 Robert Sanderson Mulliken (Chemistry) For fundamental work concerning chemi cal bonds and the electronic structure of molecules 1968 Lars Onsager (Chemistry) Added a fourth law of thermodynamics to the classic three principles of the science of heat 1972 Christian B . Anfinsen (Chemistry) William H . Stein (Chemistry) Stanford Moore (Chemistry) For their fundamental contributions to enzyme chemistry
N o history of C & E N c o u l d possibly be complete without at least some m e n t i o n of M a c k P r i n t i n g C o . , w i t h w h i c h the magazine has been associ ated throughout its entire p u b l i c a t i o n life. T h e groundwork for the re l a t i o n s h i p actually started long be fore C & E N was born. In 1893, D r . E d w a r d H a r t , head of the depart ment of chemistry at Lafayette C o l lege i n E a s t o n , P a . , established Chemical Publishing Co. Harvey F . M a c k became his bookkeeper and secretary i n 1900. Later, i n 1905, M r . M a c k , who h a d since acquired an interest i n C h e m i c a l P u b l i s h i n g Co., j o i n e d its operations w i t h those of E s c h e n b a c h P r i n t i n g C o . a n d con t i n u e d p u b l i s h i n g various A C S jour nals. In J a n u a r y 1909, the first issue of The Journal of Industrial and Engi neering Chemistry was p r i n t e d by E s c h e n b a c h . B y 1923 the name of the p u b l i c a t i o n had been changed to Industrial and Engineering Chem istry w i t h two News E d i t i o n s a n d the Industrial E d i t i o n each m o n t h . T h e two news editions were p u b l i s h e d on the 10th and the 20th of each m o n t h . T h e m a t e r i a l was set on monotype equipment, p r i n t e d on sheetfed letterpress, a n d h a d an original print order i n 1923 of 14,500. T h e News E d i t i o n , first issued as a separate periodical i n 1940, became Chemical and Engineering News i n 1942, s t i l l issued on a twice-monthly basis. In 1946, Teletypewriter service was established between Mack and C & E N installations both i n W a s h ington a n d N e w Y o r k C i t y , thereby facilitating the transfer of copy and corrections to the p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l . B e g i n n i n g w i t h the J a n . 6, 1947, issue, C & E N became a weekly p u b l i cation, a n d as of M a r c h of that year the number of subscribers reached 51,505. T h a t issue i n J a n u a r y was the first t i m e that C & E N was sent out unfolded and without a wrapper. Addressing was done by label on the front cover. T h i s step was possible because of the major expansion at
M a c k i n M a r c h of that year and w i t h delivery of six new presses and b i n d ery equipment. T h e next major change came i n A p r i l of 1958 when the final instal lation of a new rotary web letterpress was completed at M a c k . T h e new press was specifically designed for short-run, 64-page magazine produc tion. It consisted of four two-color p r i n t i n g units, capable of p r i n t i n g two colors on each side of two paper webs. Paper traveled through the m a chine at 750 feet per minute and de livered roughly 16,000 signatures (64 pages) per hour. T h e magazine was r u n n i n g between 128 and 140 pages per issue at that t i m e and the press r u n was averaging about 100,000 issues per week. T h e new press offered a two- to three-day saving i n production t i m e over the previous letterpress production. In 1963, M a c k installed Teletypesetter ( T T S ) equipment. It was de signed specifically for M a c k and C & E N . W o r k i n g out operating pro cedures took the rest of that year a n d T T S became a n operating fact early i n 1964. T h e advent of T T S p e r m i t t e d the saving of one full day i n the production process. T h e later closing date permitted coverage of news developments even closer to the m a i l i n g date t h a n previously. B y 1965, M a c k was* i n s t a l l i n g new web offset presses. However, the complete s w i t c h of C & E N to offset p r i n t i n g d i d not take place u n t i l the Feb. 22, 1971, issue. T T S operation was discontinued effective w i t h the Oct. 25, 1972, issue because of the very successful operation of photon composition, w h i c h had been proved since the J u l y 3, 1972, issue. M a c k ' s relationship w i t h C & E N — a n d for that matter a l l the A C S pub lications—has been a remarkable, long-term adventure. T h e two orga nizations have developed a close fam i l y l i k e relationship, and the f a m i l iarity w i t h each other's problems and goals has enabled t h e m to work to gether to develop the most advanced, efficient, and effective p u b l i s h i n g op eration possible. T h e editors of C & E N acknowledge their debt to the guidance a n d assistance of a l l the people i n the entire M a c k operation over these past 50 years and look forward to a continuing and wholly satisfactory relationship.
Jan.
15, 1973 C&EN 91
GO 1965 Monsanto starts up 600 ton-a-day am monia plant, first of a new generation of large plants. Sharp rise in construction of chemical plants in Puerto Rico. Dow Chemical produces ethylenimine on commercial scale. Bottles made of polyvinyl chloride gain market share. First of large new breed of ammonia plants on stream with completion of Monsanto's 600 ton-a-day plant at Luling, L a . ; large new plants also being built for polyvinyl chloride, urea, nitric acid, other products. With business on upswing, chemical in dustry boosts sales above $40 billion, profits above $3 billion, capital outlays above $2 billion for first time.
1966 Los Angeles* Rule 66 is first attempt to control organic solvent emissions. First 100 ton-a-day ammonia plants on stream. First large-scale use of polyvinylidene fluoride-based coatings for exterior siding. First use of artificial turf for baseball field in Houston's Astrodome.
1967 Employment in U . S . chemical industry tops 1 million for first time.
1968 Consumption of man-made fibers equals that of natural fibers in U . S . D u Pont introduces Qiana polyamide fiber. Sharp rise in use of enzyme-containing detergents in home laundry market. Chemical company sales exceed $50 billion.
1969 Chemicals under increasing fire as De partment of Agriculture curtails use of D D T , use of cyclamates in diet foods hit by H E W order, use of monosodium glutamate stopped by many food producers.
1971 D u Pont drops Corf am. Chemical firms' sales exceed $60 billion for first time. Chemicals under continued attack for their impact on human health and the environment. Among them: plastics for packaging; phosphates, enzymes, and nitriloacetic acid used in detergents; phthalate plasticizers; tetraethyllead in gasoline; mercury; polychlorinated byphenyls; hexachlorophene; D D T , 2,4,5-T, and other pesticides; several food addi tives.
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C&EN Jan. 15,
1973
fixation cycle at room temperature a n d pressure. T h e first polyatomic organic molecule was found i n interstellar space by radio astronomers in 1969—formaldehyde. Previously, i n 1968, a m m o n i a a n d water were found by radio astronomy i n space, a n d neutral hydrogen atoms, h y d r o x y l radicals, a n d several other ions a n d atoms h a d been observed by microwave spectra. T h e race was on to detect more polyatomic molecules. In 1970, carbon monoxide, molecular hydrogen, a n d formic a c i d were found, for example, a n d i n 1971 formamide was found. In 1969, too, element 104 was pro duced at the U n i v e r s i t y of California, Berkeley, a n d the name rutherfordium was proposed by A l b e r t Ghiorso a n d his group. 104 was significant because 103 closed the actinide series (90-103) a n d 104 was the first of a transactinide series, w h i c h should go from 104 to 112. W h a t m a y be the first " c h e m i c a l code w o r d " controlling memory a n d learning was isolated i n 1970, also. D r . Georges U n g a r a n d his coworkers at B a y l o r U n i versity isolated scotophobin a n d deter m i n e d the composition a n d sequence of the 15 a m i n o - a c i d peptide, isolated from the brains of rats w i t h an acquired fear of the dark from subjection to electric shock. Injection of scotophobin into other rats changes their n o r m a l prefer ence for the dark into fear of the dark. A n i m p o r t a n t advance i n a n a l y t i c a l chemistry i n the 1960's was develop ment of ion-selective electrodes. V i r t u a l l y u n k n o w n a n d unused at the be ginning of the decade, they were c o m i n g
into their own by 1970 a n d electrodes were available for more t h a n 20 ions. In 1971, D u P o n t announced it would cease by early 1972 m a k i n g Corfam, its poromeric leather substitute used i n shoes, after spending an estimated $80 to $100 m i l l i o n on it i n its seven years of c o m m e r c i a l life. A n d l i q u i d crystals were one of the hottest research areas, w i t h i m p o r t a n t technological and com m e r c i a l applications foreseen. In 1971, scientific contacts between the U . S . a n d the People's R e p u b l i c of C h i n a began, after 22 years of m u t u a l isolation, w i t h the visit of several U . S . scientists to C h i n a . 1972 brought the last A p o l l o flight to the m o o n . T h e end of an era, the flight raised questions on the whole moon project: W a s it man's greatest achieve ment of the century, his first steps out into the universe, a major t u r n i n g point i n history as he burst his terrestrial bonds? O r was it a n evasion of earthly responsibility, A m e r i c a ' s version of the p y r a m i d s , a folly of national vanity? A l s o i n 1972, the first prostaglandins were approved for use, i n E n g l a n d . T h e first p r a c t i c a l method for direct chemi cal synthesis of 90% optically pure a m i n o acids was c l a i m e d by a Monsanto team headed by D r . W i l l i a m Knowles. T h e t e a m used hydrogenations w i t h an optically active catalyst. A n d the first p l a n t h y b r i d was grown from genetic cells fused from two different species (using tobacco species) at Brookhaven N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y . A new technology emerged i n 1972—optical fibers—which could t r a n s m i t o p t i c a l images.
