JOHN A. WILSON U. S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, China Lake, California
Tmm is no getting around the fact that the words you use determine whether or not you communicate anything even approximating what you are trying to communicate. You cannot, therefore, be too careful in your choosing and using them. Your words must be precise, but the precision must he within the comprehension of the reader. As is the case vith a symbol in a mathematical equation, if there is any doubt about the meaning of a word, it must he defined. You cannot assume that your reader will put precisely the meaning on your word that you do. The meaning of technical words can change with great rapidity. A word meaning a part of a science may rapidly come to mean the whole; and conversely, words designating a whole field may come to designate only a part of it. When a selection must he made between two or three possible words, it is usually preferable to choose the familiar, the conventional, the accepted word. It is difficult to realize that a word you may have been using to stand for a concept or a piece of equipment may not be the term in general use at all; your mistaken use of the word may simply not have been called to your attention. It may he that the word is one which a very small clique uses, perhaps only the people who are working on a particular problem. You are communicating nothing if you assume the reader knows the meaning of this word. Style is essentially the manner in which a writer puts his words together. It is good or bad depending on how effective it is. Too many long sentences may make the final product hard to read; too many short sentences will make it choppy. The technical writer usually has to try t o shorten and clarify his sentences, since technical writing tends to become very complex, with long and involved sentences. Every writer combines his words in his own personal way, and one of the first things he should do is determine his idiosyncrasies and work to perpetuate the good points of his style and eliminate those which are defective. Technical writing has some often-used words and word patterns. Technical prose makes much use of the passive tense: The sodium isthen placed in the retort.
The subject is acted upon. Technical prose also makes much use of the imperative:
Place the sodium in the retort.
The subject (you) is understood. Personalization is to be avoided. Do not say "The Company's facilities"; say "the facilities of the Company." Do not say "the liquid's boiling point"; say "the boiling point of the liquid." The personal pronoun and reference to the reader are usually avoided. However, in mathematics texts such expressions as "If the reader will then transpose Eq. 10," or "We next integrate from 0 through 1," are frequently found. However, in relatively informal informative instruction material such as this paper, the use of the personal pronoun is to be preferred. English is almost entirely lacking in inflectional endings (compare Latin for instance). Word order, then, becomes of paramount importance. Shifting of words changes not only emphasis but meaning. These two sentences have the same words and exactly opposite meanings by shifting the word order: The jet swerved into the rocket. The rocket swerved into the jet.
Normal English word order in the sentence is: subject, predicate, modifiers. Ten rounds were 6red in salvo from each of the 4 battle ships, 3 cruisers, and 7 destroyers screening the harbor.
The secret of writing long sentences that are easy to read lies in putting the subject and predicate close together a t the beginning of the sentence so that the reader will not become confused by the modifiers separating subject and predicate. A meaning may gradually be enlarged or limited without the author's being aware of it. This danger is particularly great if a long time is spent in writing and rewriting the report, or if there are several authors working on different sections, each using the word in his own way. If you find your use of a word shifting, it is wise to question whether you have defined it properly, or have the right word, since it apparently does not fit your need. There is often no other way to define a word for the usage within a report than to try it and see how well it fulfills your need. The use of American English is preferable. Avoid Latinisms: For the plural of formula, use formulas rather than formulae; memorandums rather than memoranda. Avoid Britishisms: The British meaning of a word is often radically different from its American counterpart.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION American kerosene druggist gasoline newspaper man wringer
British paraffin chemist petrol pressman mangle
The pronoun n m e may be either singular or plural. Each and everyone are singular and take a singular verb. Data may be plural (if it refers to many values) or singular (if it refers to all of the values as a whole). The data were recorded automatically.
The data was published in 1949. Drop the u that is retained in British spellings: color, not colour. As with nouns and their verbs, pronouns and the Persistent Misconceptions and Errors. Infinitives substantives they refer to must agree in number, even in may be split when there is a definite purpose for doing different sentences. so. Do not confuse "split" compound verbs with W ~ n g :The rocket was designed and huilt in 90 days. They split infinitives. I t is perfectly proper to break up a are now being used in Korea. compound verb with an adverb; e. g., ". . .he was Right: The rocket designed and huilt in 90 days is now being used in Korea. apparently going. . ." A preposition at the end of a 07 The racket was designed and built in 90 days and it sentence is perfectly good English, and has been used is now being used in Korea. by the best writers, past and present. That "pure" Anglo-Saxon words give us genuinely clear forceful A more suhtle shift may involve not only a shift statements rather than the borrowed romance element in number hut also an actual shift in reference. is flatly opposed by some authorities. Launsberry A double-base powder was used throughout these experiments. in his "The French Element in English" has this to say: They then tried tri-base powders. But the moment we leave the domain of common life, the moment we come to matters which appeal to the intellect rather than the heart, the inadequacy of the native element to express what we have to say forces itself upon the &ention.
you want and use it as many times as Find the you need it, keeping foremost in mind its present-day usage. The only time the etymology of a word need be considered is when there is a question of very fine discrimination between two similar words. Beware of the cult of brevity; it is not always true that the shortest wav to sav somethine is the clearest. Remember that in writing a report on a process or experiment you are closest to the details. What may be very clear and simple to you may take a great deal of explaining to someone else. It is better to be wordy than not to be understood. Avoid piling up adjectives:
-
power-plant economic improvements decreased excess-air quantity
By adding one word these become much easier to read:
Here the word they beginning the second sentence has no antecedent; there has been a shift from talking ahout powder to talking about the people handling the powder. This shift in subject, using a pronoun for which there is no antecedent, is a persistent error and should be guarded against carefully, ~h~~~ are tl770 types of Iring" words that give the writer trouble. oneis used as noun and one as an oA;sn+:.,o
P"JCYY."C.
Firing began at noon. The firing pin was shattered.
I n the first sentence, the "ing" word is the subject of the sentence, and in the second, it modifies the subject of the sentence, pin. Note that in neither case are those words used as verbs. When used as a verb (present participle) the "ing" word must be arcompanied by another verb. The batteries were firing directly into the wind.
In this sentence were jring is the compound verb. Because there is a verb form in conjunction with the Certain word patterns demand consistency within "ing" word does not mean that you necessarily have a themselves. These often give the writer difficulty sentence. This is not a sentence: because intervening words obscure the relationship. The rocket failing to fire, the fuse having failed. Predicate and subject in a sentence must agree in How and Where to Find the Desired Word. The number. Do not let yourself be confused by the mere usual place to begin a word hunt is with the big " Wehform of the word; words ending in s may or may not ster's International Dictionary." The New Words have the plural idea attached: section is valuable, and the work as a whole is very Ten grams was added. strong on chemistry terms. The latest "Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary" often has words that the The word grams is plural, but ten grams is one quantity and takes a singular verb. Some nouns and pronouns "International" does not. "Webster's" puts the oldest are sometimes singular, sometimes plural. If they derivations and meanings of the word first; the "Winare used as a unit, the verb may be singular; if as a ston American College Dictionary" puts the common group composed of several individuals, the verb may meanings of the word first, and the etymology of the word at the end of the entry. be plural. Remember that dictionaries, of any kind, are not An evaluation group was set up on the Station. The evalustian group were moved to the Administration Build- a law unto themselves; they serve as guides, trying to standardize words, but they must by their nature be a ing. economic improvements of power plants decreased quantity of excess air
VOLUME 33, NO. 11. NOVEMBER. 1956
final outcome and moreover little behind the development of the language. The as a general rule bisect into two parts technical writer, in his search for and his adaptation important eesentiak audible to the ess of words to suit his needs in these days of rapid technoseeming paradox square in shape logical development, must be up forward among those true facts few in number who are changing the language. He must occasionally aasemhle together big in size "go out on a limb," but he must know exactly what he is WORDS COMMONLY CONFUSED doinc, and he must be sure that his reader knows what absorb, adsorb. Absorb: to take up or drink in; &orb: to he is' doing. condense in a layer on the surface. There are dictionaries for almost every branch of aeeept, adopt. Adapt; t o adjust, make suitable, remodel; science and engineering. In very heavy use are: adopt: to accept, receive as one's own. adhere, cohere. Two or more separate things may adhere (stick "Chamber's Technical Dictionary,"' "Hackh's Chemical Dicti~nary,"~ "James's Mathematics Dictiona~y,"~ together). Parts of the same thing cohere (hold together). adherace, adhesion. The words are often interchangeable, "Van Nostrand's Scientific Ency~lopedia."~If you though adheaion is more likely to refer to the physical, adherence want synonyms to help you sort out the possible words to the mental or socid affect, effect. As verbs--affect: to influence, to pretend; you could use, there are "Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms," and the old stand-by "Roget's Thesaurus." effect: to accomplish, complete. As nouns--affect: factors determining thought and conduct; effect: factors definitely To check the spelling and proper form of firm names and attributable to a cause. brand names there is "Thomas' Register of American oqgregalr, lolo!. A n aggrcgatc ia a eollectior~of p~rrieularain a Manufacturers,"' or "Poore's Register of Directors mxrr or whole; a total ia a whole or entirety without special reference to parts. and Exe~utives."~ alipuant, olipot. Aliquant: contained in another number, but Check the names of equipmcnt with "Thomas' with remainder; aliquot: contained in another number without Register," with the name of the equipmcnt itself, with remainder. the catalogue, or with the letterhead from the company all ready, already. AU ready is an adjective meaning completely from which it was ordered. If your spelling, forms, and prepared; h e a d y is an adverb meaning before now. all together, altogether. Altogether, meaning entirely, oomcapitalization arc wrong when yon put them in the is often mistaken for all together meaning collectively. report, they will be wrong when the report is published. pletely, allude, refer. Refer to a thing by a clear and direct statement; As a connective between coordinate statements, so is allude by a passing, indirect, sometimes obscure remark or hint. typical of informal style and is to be avoided by careful alternate, alternative. Alternate: first one and then the other; writers. Use of so usually shows that the subordination alternative: one without the other. altitude, elevatiun. Altitude is absolute, elevation may be relaproblem has not been well thought out. tive. Usually etc. is meaningless. Get together your film anumg, between. Among is to he used in referring to more than and flash gun, ctc., means: Get together your camera two things; between to only two. equipment anhydrous, hygroswpic. Anhydrous: destitute of water, Expletives are meaningless fill-in words and should dried; hygroscopic: capable of absorbing moisture. apparatly, seemingly, obviously. Apparently and seemingly be avoided. suggest that the senses or perception may he a t fault and some ~~
It is difficult to determine the cause of failure. There were the same number of molecules present in each case.
These sentences are better if written: The cause of failure was difEcult to determine. The same number of molecules were present in each case.
Redundancy and tautology consist in saying the same thing twice and exhibit a lack of clear thinking. The following list of examples is illustrative.
. ..
cause of is on account of pair of twins modern equipment of today an entire monopoly close ~mximitv
connect up continue on inside of entirely complete hut nevertheless
"Chamber's Technical Dictionary," The M a c d a n Co., New York, 1944. "Hackh's Chemical Dictionary," The. Blskiston Ca., New York, 1944. "LCEIAN, A. A., ET AL., "Mathematictics Dictionary," D. Van Nostrend Ca., Inc., New York, 1949. ' "Van Nostrand's Scientific Encvclo~ediit."D. Van Noatrand Co.. Inc.. New York. 1947. 6'"~hdmn,s'~ e e i s t e rof Amerinan Manufacturers." Thomas publishing Co., N;W York, 1954. "Poore's Register of Directors and Executives," Standard & Poore's Corp., New York, 1956.
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doubt present while obviously expresses certainty or complete clarity or rerognition. appear, sea. Appear refers to an effect upon the senses; seem, to one on the mind. apprehend, ewnpwhend. To comprehend is to grasp completely; to apprehend is to perceive the main drift or to 1wk forward with foreboding. Apprehend has also s specific use in the sense of arrest, make a prisoner of. balance, remainder, rest. Balance implies a difference in equality as in a. bookkeeper's accounts, and should not be used in the sense of remainder or rest, when objects or individuals are meant. beside, besides. Beside: s t the side of; besides: in addition to, moreover, bi-, semd(monthly, weekly, yearly, eta.). Bimonthly: every two months; semimonthly: twice a month, eta. cite, quote. To quote is to repeat the words of the original; to cite is to refer to or to give the substance of the original. melude, decide. Conclude implies previous consideration or exercise of judgment. One may decide on the spur of themoment, but concludes after reflection. wnsequent, couseguatial. Consequent (adi.): following as a natural result; consequential: important or self-important. eontinul, catinuous. The continual lasts but with perhaps pauses or breaks; the continuous lasts without pausen or breaks, definite, definiliue. Definite: dear, precise, unmistakable; dcfinitive: conclusive, permanent, unalterable, final. deterrent, detrimat. Deterrent: that which hinders, slows down; detriment: that which causes damage, injury, loss. discover, inuent. You discover what is already in existence; invent something new.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION electric, eledrieal. Electric: containing, producing, arising from, acutated by, or carrying electricity, or capable of so doing; electrical: related to, pertaining to, or associated with electricity, but not necessarily having its properties or characteristics. e l e m t n l , elementa~y. Elemental refers to the great forces of nature or of feeling; elementary refers to the basic or rudimentary parta of a whole; elementary grades. emerge, immerge. Emerge: to come forth or out; immerge: plunge into or under. Immerge is rare, immerse is more often used. e n m i t y , enormousness. Enormousness refers only to size; enormity to morals. equable, equitable. Equable: of even or balanced range or uniform condition, not varying; equitable: fair, just, impartial. eruption, irruption. Eruption: a bursting out; irruption: a bursting in. especial, special. Use special. exceedingl~,ezcessiuely. Excessively is stronger than exceedingly. Exceedingly means much; excessively means too much. expect, suppose, suspect. Expect suggests looking into the future; suppose, believing or receiving as true; suspect, the idea of susdcion. ezpedieient, ezpeditious. Expedient: advisable or advantageous; expeditious: quick or speedy. farther, further. Farther refers to physicd distance; further to extent or degree. f l a i ~flaw. , Flair: instinctive power of discriminating or taste combined with aptitude; flare: sudden or unsteady light or flame. flaunt, flout. Flaunt: make ostentatious display or vulgar show; flout: reject contemptuously, sneer at, jest. forceful, f o ~ d b l e . Forcible implies the presence or use of force; -
.
mess,. sumose. Guess: hazard an ooinion which is admitted . ..
as insufficient; suppose: there are grounds for assuming the thoueht to be true. hardly, seareely. In strict usage scarcely refers to quantity and hardly to depee. homogemous, homogaous. Homogeneous: of the same nature or constitution; homogenous: of the same origin. hyperbola, hype~bole. Hyperbola: ageometricdfigure; hyperbale: an artistic exameration.
term meaning to pledge, pawn, or mortgage. Hypothesiee means to make hypotheses. immanent, imminent. Immanent: indwelling; imminent: impending. impassable, unpossable, impassible, impassive. Impassable: closed, offering complete obstruction to; unpassable: not to be passed (in speed); impassible: unfeeling; impassive: unemotional, stoical, apathetic, d m , serene. imply, infer. Imply means to suggest; infer to surmise or conclude. incipient, i n s i p i a t . Incipient: beginning to exist; insipient: unwise. in&mmable, i n f i m a b r y . Inflammable: readily set on fire; iuflamma;tory: tending to produce heat or excitement. ingenious, ingenuous. Ingenious: skillful in contriving, inventive; ingenuous: artless, open, naive, innocent in B mod sense. insoluble, unsolvable, insolvable. AU three me used in the sense of not to be solved or explained, but unsolvable or insolvable means a l y that, while insoluble may mean not to be dissolved. irregardless. Use regardless. junction, juncture. The words are interchangeable in the sense of the act of joining or union, but juncture is used in the special sense of a paint of time, a crisis or exigency, while junction is used in the sense of crossroads.
livid. The word does not mean red, a0 some think, but black and blue, greenish, or ashy may. luzuriant, luzurious. Luxuriant: abounding, teeming; luxurious: given to indulgence of the sense. momentarily, momently. Momentarily: for or during a moment, transitorily; momently: from moment to moment, moment by moment, intermittentlv. observance, observation. Observance: attending to or carrying out a rule, duty, or custom; observation: consciously seeing or takina notice. ontigal/, ntology. Ontogeny: a biologied term for the history of the evolution of the individual; ontology: a philosophical term for the science of real being, the theory of reality. pendant, pendent. Pendant is a noun, pendent an adjective. Pendant: something that hangs; pendent: hanging. place, put. Put is the more general term. Place denotes greater care and exactness. practicable, practical. Practicable: feasible; practioal: suited to or fitted for use or aotion. preceding, preuious. Preceding refers to that which precedes without an interval; previous to that which precedes at any time. proof, evidence. Strictly, proof is the effect or result of evidence and evidenoe is the medium of proof. principle, principal. Principle means general truth or belief; principal means the main or primary. propo~tion, mtio. Proportion: a. comparative part; ratio refers to the quantitative relation between two similar magnitudes. rare, scarce. A thing (a metal for instance) may be scarce without being rare. reslrain, mstriet. Restrain: to curb, cheek, repress; restrict: to restrain within limits, confine. result, resullant. Keep resultant for use in algebra or mechanics. stalactite, stalagmite. Stalactites mow downward: stalitemites . upwrtrd. technics, techniques. Technics: technical rules, methods, or the doctrine of an art or a technology; techniques: manners of performanoe. tortuous, torturous. Tortuous: winding, twisting; torturous: having the quality of torture. unquestiaed, unquestionable. That which is unquestioned is not or has not been questioned; that which is unquestionable cannot be decently or sensibly questioned.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The preparation of technical reports properly has been the subject of many articles in THIS JOURNAL. The discussion above was designed to supplement these existing sources of information by discussing only style and word usage. Repetition of previously published material was limited to emphasis of perennial problems. For readers' reference, below are listed by author, volume, and page the articles treating one or more aspects of word usage which have appeared in THIS
JOURNAL.
KIBLER,A. L., 13, 525 (1936). J. R., 16,257 (1939). MANNING, WALL,F. E., 20, 580 (1943). FISCHER,E. K.,21, 441 (1944). WALL,F. E., 24, 129 (1947). COOK.S. J.. 24. 190 (1947). T. c., AND V. E. G;;IBOP;S, 37 HAWLEY, G. G., 31, 77 (1954). SPINES,J. W. T., 31, 348 (1954). GATES,MARSHALL, 31, 456 (1954). WALDO,W. H., 31, 525 (1954). WILSON,J. H., 32. 190 (1955). SPANGLEE, E. R., 33,61 (1956).
DOODY,
