A PHYSICAL SCIENCE GENERAL COURSE for GRADES 11 and 12' THEODORE A. ASHFORD The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
INTRODUCTION
I
N RECENT decades, the influx of our population into the high schools and colleges has inaugurated a movement in the direction of replacing specialized training by liberal or general education. Largely in response to this situation, the University of Chicago in 1931 put into effect the "New Plan," an essential part of which was the development of general courses in the fields of the physical sciences, the biological sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities. These courses have been in operation since the introduction of the New Plan, and are taken by the students of the university in their freshman or sophomore years. Meanwhile, the University of Chicago has entered a more comprehensive program in integrating education. A four-year college has been organized, which consists of the two umer mades of the h i ~ h school, i . e., nades 11 and 12, add &e two lower Years of the university, i . e., grades 13 and 14. Since the autumn of 1936 general courses are being developed for the grades 11 and 12. In the physical sciences, the general course now developed, replaces high-school physics and highschool chemistry. This course extends over a period of two years, and may be taken as an alternative to the physical science general course of the thirteenth year. OBJECTIVES OF THE CO&SE
In a single sentence the objective of the course has been stated as follows: To provide the student the opportunity to obtain a unified picture of the physical universe which should contribute to the development of a rational philosophy of life. This objective may be expressed operationally in terms of the following more specific understandings and attitudes which the student should develop. (1) Understanding of the nature of matter and its transformations. (2) Understanding of the nature of energy and its various manifestations. (3) Understanding of t h distribution ~ of matter and energy in the vast cosmic space. (4) Understanding of the changes that are taking place on the surface of the earth, and the im-
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Presented before the Division of Chemical Education at the ninety-sixthmeeting of the A. C. S., Milwaukee, Wis., September 7, 1938.
portant events that have taken place during.the &ormous span of geologic time.. (5) Understanding of some important aspects of everyday experience, including developments in applied science, in terms of a fundamental system of laws and generalizations. (6) Understanding and appreciation of the methods used in gaining knowledge in the various fields of science. (7) Development of a rational attitude of mind. (8) An appreciation of the relation of man to the physical universe. The course has been developed with these objectives in view. In order to indicate what provisions have been made for the attainment of these objectives, the content of the course, the methods of approach, and the methods of instruction will be briefly discussed. OUTLINE OF THE COURSE
The course is an integration of physics, chemistry, astronomy, and geology. .,Fdi pedagogical purposes the subject mhtter has been organized around seventeen areas or units, eight of which are taught during the first (eleventh) year and the remaining nine during the second (twelfth) year. For each year a one hundred twenty page syllabus is available, in which the contents are develooed in detail. and which serves as a mide for study. brief statement about each unit wil give a fair idea of the scope of the course.
First Year The Earth, Our Home is a general discussion of the size, shape, motions, constitution, and main surface features of the earth as the abode of man. The Ever Changing Face of the Earth is a study of weather and the geologic processes, gradation, diastrophism, and volcanic activity. Motion is an analytical study of uniform and accelerated motion from the point of view of Newton's laws of motion. Energy, the Agent of All Change is a study of the various forms of energy, mechanical as well as heat, its transformations and the law of its conservation. The Molecular Nature of Matter is a study of the behavior of matter in the gaseous, liquid, and solid states, and in solution, and the interpretation of this behavior in terms of the kinetic molecular theory. The Atomic Constitution of Matter is a study of the
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nature of chemical change, the laws of chemical combination, and their interpretation in terms of atomic theory. Electricity, at Rest and i n Motion is a study of fundamental phenomena in magnetism, static electricity, and current electricity. The Electrical Nature of Matter is a study of the phenomena which lead to the idea of the atomic nature of electricity and to the concept of the Rutherford atom.
METHODS OF APPROACH
Throughout the entire course the scientific method is used, though no provision is made to teach a formal branch of logic. The experimental material is presented and certain problems are raised. In order to solve these problems correlations are made, and several hypotheses are advanced. The deductions from these hypotheses are tested experimentally, so that some hvootheses are discarded while others are tentativelv accepted. In this manner, the accepted theories and Second Year generalizations of science are developed and evaluated The Chemical Reaction is a study of combustion and in terms of the evidence that supports them. other chemical reactions, the energy changes during a Whenever feasible, the historical approach is used. reaction, the speed of a chemical reaction, and the con- This approach has an important cultural value, and cept of chemical equilibrium. gives a better appreciation of the development of Atomic Structure and Chemical Behevior is a study of science. Science is taught not as a finished product, the periodic arrangement of the elements on the basis hut as an evolving, growing, living thing. of chemical evidence on the one hand and physical Although, as is evident from the foregoing discussion, evidence on the other, and the relation between electron the principles of science are emphasized, nevertheless configuration and chemical behavior. applications are freely used. The explanation of pheIons and Ionization is a study of electrical properties nomena of everyday experience is an important objective of solutions, the classification of ionogens into acids, of the course. To use a metaphor, while principles form bases, and salts, ionic equilibria, and oxidation-reduc- the supporting skeleton of the structure of science, aption in solution. plications are the flesh. Moreover, because of the imMetals and Nan-Metals is a systematic study of the mediate relation to experience, applications aid in the most important metals and non-metals on the basis of understanding of the principles. The frequent use of general relationships in the periodic system. . applications makes the principles more meaningful so Carbon, the Element of Life is a study of the most im- that the knowledge obtained functions in the lives of portant characteristics of organic compounds, par- the students. ticularly the relation between molecular architecture and chemical properties. METHODS OF ZNSTRUCTION The History of the Earth is a study of the methods of The couxse consists of four'class periods per week and estimating the age of rocks, and a brief account of the most important biological and physical events of the one double laboratory period. During the class periods instruction is carried on by means of lectures and supergeologic past. The Earth and Its Neighbors is a study of the earth vised study. The lectures are supplemented with and other members of the solar family, and the dy- demonstration experiments, motion picture films, and namics, structure, and possible origin of the solar system. slides. The demonstration experiments are an integral part Waves as Carriers of Energy is a study of wave motion, sound, and the wave charafteristics of radiant of the lectures. In all stages of the development of the energy over the entire range of the electromagnetic unit, experiments are performed, which in every case constitute the basis upon which the ideas are built. spectrum. Atoms and Stars is a study of spectra, and their use In general, the experiments are qualitative rather than in determining the nature of the stars, their distrihu- quantitative in character. The apparatus is chosen to tion in space, and the structure of the siderial universe. make them as simple as possible, the object being to Even from this brief outline it may be seen that there elucidate the fundamental ideas without complicating is considerable integration. For each unit the material the issue with extraneous refinements. For example in is drawn from all sciences as needed, with the definite showing that metals gain weight on heating in air, a effort to arrange it according to difficulty. The first steel or a wooden beam, balanced from the center, is to two units contain essentially descriptive material, taken be preferred to an expensive analytical balance. Whenmainly from astronomy and geology. The units on ever possible instances from everyday l i e are used. In addition to the demonstrations, the student permechanics are considerably more difficult, but are introduced early in order to build a logical structure of forms a number of experiments individually. The funcscience. The units on molecular theory, atomic theory, tion of this laboratory work is to provide the student and atomic structure are examples of integration of the opportunity to come in contact with the raw maphysics and chemistry. The same plan is followed in terials of science and to develop the ability to plan his the units of the second year, into which the more own course of action. From a list of problems, which difficult topics of modem physics are woven. This require experimentation for their solution, the student arrangement makes constant review not only desirable selects one or more. Detailed directions are not given but the problems are such that they require a minimum but necessary. d.
of manipulative skill. For example, in chemistry the problem may be to determine whether a given acid is strong or weak, which may be solved in a variety of ways. A seri.es of sound films for general courses in physical sciences has been developed by the Erpi Picture Consnltants, Inc., in cooperation with The University of Chicago. These contain well integrated and highly concentrated material. They are used as a part of the presentation in the beginning of the unit, and as a summary a t the end. In addition to these films, other well-known films on Special topics (e. g., on petroleum) are shown. Throughout the entire course, but more commonly in topics on geology, astromony, and organic chemistry, numerous slides are used in connection with the lectures. They provide illustrative material in fields in which first-hand contact is physically impractical. During the year several museum trips are taken. Among the museums visited are the Adler Planetarium, the Rosenwald Museum, and the several museums of the University. The function of the museum trips is twofold: to provide instruction on phases of science in which the several museums are specifically equipped, and to develop a rich background of experience. It is hoped that as a by-product the trips would help develop a life-long interest in the cultural aspects of science. In addition to the class trips, assignments are given which require independent visits by the student. Fr0m.a list of topics to be investigated the student selects one or more, visits the museum a t hours suitable to his individual program, and makes a written or oral report. A special effort is made to develop an interest in independent reading of science material. A wide variety of library projects is provided, from which the student selects from one to four per month. These projects may be either essentially extensive material of slight difficulty, such as biographies of menpf science, tracing the development of ideas, or description of industrial processes; or they may require intensiverstudy of some particular topic. The student makeseither a written or an oral report on his study.
four years the mean has not varied by more than three per cent. As the two courses are essentially equivalent, and a large amount of material is common to both, it is possible to obtain a comparison by including common items in the comprehensive examinations. From the examinations given in June, 1938 the following comparisons have been obtained. TABLE 1
Number taking the examination Maximum score obtainable Mean score
Two-yenr course l l l k year 12th year
One-year course 13th year
116 270 177
542 413 274
~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ ~ 65.6% e t w 11th and 13th 67 Mean score an p ~ ~ ~ ' & 41.2 ! ~ 61.570 Common items between 12th and 13th ~
M ~ ~ , " ~ i ~ m m s Per cent. of total -
31 218 160 e 72.0% e n
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~ -~ 130 98.6 77.4%
66.3% 67 41.0 613% 130 81.0 62.3%
The results indicate that the achievement of the groups is as high, if not higher, than that of the older groups. This conclusion confirms the definite impression which the author has developed as a result of personal contact with groups in each course. It seems that the more time spent by the younger groups under better supenision more than counterbalances their immat~rity.~ It might be pointed out that f& a person studying a t The University of Chicago, taking the course in the eleventh and twelfth Years rather than attending a regular high school is a significant saving of time. The average student taking the physical science general course in his freshman (or sophomore) year in the university during 1937-1938, had speiit 1.21 years in highschool physics and chemistry. That is, the student will have spent 2.21 Years before he fulfils the physical science requirements. By taking the two-year course the same requirements are completed 'in two years by EVALUATION OF THE COURSE the end of the twelfth year. The author wishes to express his indebtedness to Dr. progressin the four-year college is determined by passing the various comprehensive examinations, A Marion W. Richardson, of the Board of Examinations, i n gdata from the and to student may satisfy the requirements for the physical for s u ~ ~ l ~ the M. his colleagues, Mr. Clifford Holley and ~ r selby . sciences by passing either the comprehensive examina. Skinner, for their contributions to the development of tion for the given in the thirteenth year, or two com~rehensiveexaminations, one a t the end of each vear the of this two-year course. During the academic year 1938-39 there were three classes The examinations for the course of the thirteenth takine the first-year course and three classes t a k i n ~the secondyear have been taken by over four thousand students year course. AU analysis of the comprehensive examination of June, 1939, shows no statistically significant differences in the in the past eight years, B~ this time they are fairly achievement of these groups, compared to that of the thirteenth well standardized, as shown by the fact that for the past year group. YOUW~
