I76
T H E J O U R Z d L OF IXDC'STRIAL A N D EYGINEERIA-G CHEMISTRY
v01. 7 ,
NO.3
EDITORIALS INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING CONGRESS
VOLKNE
The dates for the great International Engineering Congress t o be held in San Francisco during the Panama-Pacific Exposition have been definitely a n nounced as September 2 0 - 2 5 b y IT. F . Durand. Chairm a n of t h e Committee of Xanagement. T h e Congress is t o be held under t h e auspices of the American Society of Civil Engineers, t h e Xmerican Institute of Mining Engineers, t h e -4merican Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Institute of Electrical E n gineers a n d t h e Society of Naval ,\rchitects and Marine Engineers. Colonel G. IT. Goethals has consented t o act as Honorary President and is expected t o preside in person over its general sessions. The papers t o be presented before the Congress will cover t h e general field of engineering. They are intended t o treat the various topics in a broad and comprehensive manner and n-ith special reference t o t h e important lines of progress during t h e past decade, t h e present most approT-ed practices and the lines of present a n d future development. It is intended, furthermore, t h a t all such papers shall be accompanied with a reasonably full bibliography of t h e subject, giving references t o t h e important original papers and sources of information relating t o t h e special topic of t h e paper. T h e authors of t h e papers are distributed over the engineering world, and comprise men eminent in t h e various branches of t h e proession. A special effort will be made t o procure discussions, carefully prepared in advance. for presentation with t h e papers. I n addition, opportunity will be afforded for oral discussion a t t h e various sessions of t h e Congress. I t is anticipated t h a t limitations of space may require the ultimate publication of all discussions in condensed or summary form. Discussions will be welcomed in a n y language at the choice of t h e writer, a n d if in other t h a n English will be translated for publication. The rarious papers, some 300 or more in number, will be presented before t h e Congress in I O or more sections closely approximating the division of subjects b y volumes. T h e meetings will be held in the new ;luditorium building in the Civic Center of San Francisco, in which the Panama-Pacific International Exposition authorities have reserved f o r t h e week of the Congress a sufficient number of assembly, section and committee rooms t o fully meet ail requiremeiits of the Congress. Subject t o necessary modification, the transactions will be published in I O volumes, 6 X 9 inches in size, a n d of about 500 pages each, with one smaller or half volume which will contain the reports of t h e general or business meetings of t h e Congress, together with a title and author index and a brief digest of each paper presented. T h e schedule of volumes is as follows:
I-THE
P A K A h l A CAX.4L
(24
VOLUME
TOPICS)
11-WATERWAYS (6
TOPICS) IRRIGATIOX (1 I TOPICS) VOLUXEIII--RAILWAYS ( 7 TOPICS) VOLUME I ~ * - ? d u N r C I P A L &NGINEERIKG VOLUXE
VoLcLrss VI
AND
(8
TOPICS)
EXGIKEERISG C O N S T R U C T I O N (20 T O P I C S ) \ ' ~ I - - ~ ~ E C H A NENGIXEERING ICAL (28 TOPICS) ELECTRICAL ENGISEERINC (8 TOPICS)
V--MATERIALS
OF
VOLLXE '~"II--~TIxIsGENGIKBERING ( I O TOPICS) METALLURGY ( I O *roPIcs) TrOLClfE
IX---S.&vAL
.lRCHITBCTTrRE
AND
XfARIGE
EKGINEBRING
(19 TOPICS) VOLUXS X-MISCELLAXFOLTS [ X D E X AND &G€ST
All engineers and all others who are interested in engineering work, its progress and achievements, are cordially invited t o subscribe as members of t h e Congress. The general fee for membership in t h e Congress, open t o all engineers or others interested in engineering subjects, is $ j . o o U. S. Gold, which will entitle t h e member t o receive t h e index volume and a n y single volume of t h e transactions he may select, together with t h e right of participation in all general activities and privileges of t h e Congress. I t is expected t h a t there will be arranged a number of excursions t o points of engineering and general interest within practicable reach of San Francisco, and every effort will be made t o make possible t h e personal inspection of such engineering works as are especially typical of t h e Pacific Coast. A STATISTICAL REVIEW OF THE QUESTION OF
GASOLINE SUPPLY Some three or four years ago the question of an adcquate supply of gasoline threatened t o become acutc. This situation was brought about by causes the most important of which are familiar t o all interested in petroleum. During t h e brief period of t h e last three years a large number of patents have appeared, which have for their object the increasing of .the yield of gasoline. SGme of them constituting real advances in petroleum technology a n d others interesting because of t h e bizarre transformation which matter, in the form of petroleum. is made t o undergo. T h e situation just prior t o the introduction of improved methods of cracking is here briefly reviewed. Reliable statistics of t h e production of gasoline are not available. particularly in this country, t h e largest producer u p t o t h e present time. -4 better index of available gasoline is obtained b y reference t o t h e crudes which yield i t . T h e world's production of petroleum since 1900 is graphically shown in Fig I ,Ittention should be called t o t h e €act t h a t the greatest increases in the production of crude have bcen in fields yielding heavy oil containing little or no gasoline as is t h e case n i t h California and Mexican oils Arnold a n d Garfias (Bull. A m . I m t . Min. Eng., 19x4, p . 394) place t h e probable maximum annual production of California at about ~ o o . o o o . o o o barrels. Rear Admiral Edwards ( B u l l . A m . Inst. Mi??.Etlg., 1914, p . 2 2 9 3 ) has recently expressed a similar opinion. On
Mar., 1915
T H E JOURNAL OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
the other hand, some of t h e fields yielding oil containing relatively iarge percentages of gasoline have sharply declined, as t h e Appalachian and Lima-Indiana fields, or bave remained practically stationary as has been the case with Russia and t h e Dutch E a s t Indies. This is indicated in Fig. I. The curve designated as
/900 1902
/904
/YO6 /YO8
/9/0 /9/Z19/3
“U. S. Light Crudes” gives t h e production in the various fields of t h e United States with t h e exception of California a n d the Gulf, since these latter fields can hardly be considered factors in t h e production of natural gasoline. While small yields of gasoline are obtainable from some of t h e Californian, Mexican, and Gulf oils, i t is also true t h a t small pools of very heavy oils occur in fields classed in Fig. I as “Light Crudes.” It is believed t h a t these factors fairly balance, making t h e classification used a rational one. The relative insignificance of foreign sources, such as the Dutch East Indies, is apparent. I n this connection i t m a y be of interest t o note t h e production of petroleum in t h e four principal Baku districts during the last four years.
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gasoline has undoubtedly been a big factor in t h e general increase in prices paid for light crudes. This is indicated by t h e fact t h a t t h e oils richest in gasoline showed t h e greatest advances in price. T h e gasoline consumption in England, a non-producing country. has been taken as probably indicating most accurately the new conditions confronting t h e market. This rapid increase has been due chiefly t o t h e automobile, motor cycle and mctor boat. The number of automobiles i n England increased from 276,258 i n 1911 t o 440,000 in 1913. Even more remarkable is t h e increase in the number of automobiles in use in t h e United States. I n 1910there were in t h e United States, as nearly as can be ascertained, from t h e registration statistics, about 3 j0,ooo motor vehicles in use; in 1911the figure given was j j O , O O O , in 1912 this total had mounted t o 990,700, and is estimated at t h e present time a t ~,joo,ooo.( N e w Y o r k Journal Comm., Aug. 8 , 1914). The number of makers of commercial trucks increased from 198 in 1911, t o 3 1 2 in 1g12,and t h e r e a r e now stated t o be 85,000 motor vehicles in this class in operation in this country. The rapid increase in t h e use of motor trucks during t h e last t w o years is of t h e greatest importance, because of t h e demand for a cheaper grade of gasoline or motor fuel. More accurate data are available giving t h e number of automobiles manufactured in this country since 1903. This is shown graphically in Fig. 111. Evidently t h e demand for gasoline has been growing a t a much greater rate t h a n t h e production. There are other factors which tend t o make higher prices for crude petroleums of practically all classes. The
DISTRICTS Price per ton
PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM I N THE PRINCIPAL B A E U
Year October 1909 to October 1910 t o October 1911 t o October 1912 t o
October October October October
1910.. . . 1911. 1912.. . . . . 1913.. . . . .
.....
Tons 8,766,000 7,819,200 7,470,000 7,192,000
5 4.48
5.30 8.74 11.38
The effect on production of increase in t h e prices paid for light crudes during 1912and 1913 was very slight indeed, a n actual decrease in the total production of light crudes in the United States having occurred, as is shown in Fig. I . (The figures for 1914, including t h e Cushing pool, are not yet available.) consumption of fuel oil in this country for steaming AVERAOEPRICE O F LIGHTC R U D E S P E R BARRELI N u. s. FIELDS purposes has doubled since 1906, although its market Year Penna. Ill. Okla. Texas price has approximately doubled in t h e same period. 1910............................... $1.33 $0.59 $0.39 50.75 0.66 1.30 0.63 1911 ............................... 0.48 [Arnold and Garfias (Bull. A m . Inst. Min. Eng., 1914, 1912 ............................... 1.64 0.85 0.67 0.75 1913 August ........................ 0.90 2.50 1.30 1.03 p. 394) call attention t o t h e fact t h a t , considering only 1914 January ....................... 0.95 2.50 1.45 1.05 1914 December ..................... 1.50 0.55 0.89 0.55 t h e relative heating value a n d market prices of fuel The tremendous increase in the consumption of oil and coal in California, fuel oil should sell for
T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L AATD ENGIAVEERING C H E M I S T R Y
178
$0.93 per bbl. The consumption of oil for fuel in this country in 1906 was i j , 5 7 7 , 0 0 0 bbls. and in 1913 was 33,004,ooo bbls.] T h e production of asphalt from residuum increased 3 3 . 7 per cent during the year 1912, the total production amounting t o 333,213 tons. A critical examination of t h e various ways of meeting a possible shortage of gasoline brings out only more strongly the paramount importance of a plentiful supply of this article. I n general, t h e gasoline nom on t h e market averages ten degrees B a u m i lower gravity t h a n t h e common market product of only a few years ago. Users of automobiles have found t h a t in most motor vehicles t h e heavier grades of gasoline are perfectly satisfactory. As expressed b y 17. B. Lewes in t h e Journal of the Royal Society o,f Arts, 1913,p. 7 0 6 : "for continuous running, with t h e engine hot, such mixtures of petrol and kerosene give excellent results, showing indeed, a n improvement in power over the original spirit." Numerous a t t e m p t s have been made t o devise carbureters t o use oil of about 48' BC., b u t none Ras as yet come into wide use. Most of t h e m give difficulty in starting, and t h e engine does not pick up if allowed t o slow down. One t y p e of carbureter
I903
'04
05
'06
'a7
'OB
'09
j0
I1
I/.?
73
now being advocated is arranged t o be started OR gasoline and, after t h e engine is hot, uses kerosene of about 46' BC. without trouble, b u t t h e d a y of t h e kerosene motor has not yet arrived, a n d whether motor fuel heavier t h a n about 5 5 " Be. will ever give satisfaction in automobile engines is very doubtful. T h e gravity alone does not necessarily indicate what a n oil will do in a gasoline engine. T h e volatility of a n oil a n d t h e temperature a t which it will dorm explosion mixtures are of greater importance t h a n gravity. As indicated above t h e motor fuel now in common use is considerably heavier t h a n t h a t sold a few years ago. I t should be remembered t h a t the character of "gasoline" was originally determined b y t h e flash point limits prescribed b y law for kerosene a n d had no reference t o the adaptability of t h e gasoline for internal combustion engines. While considerable work has been done in attempting t o utilize kerosene in automobiles apparently no systematic, impartial investigation has ever been made t o determine how much of t h e lighter fractions of kerosene can be included in t h e various grades of light gasoline for good results with the carbureters and gasoline motors plow in common use. T h e gasoline of t h e present
Val. 7 , SO.3
d a y may be considered as t h a t fraction boiling under approximately I j o ' C . I t should be pointed out t h a t if the whole distillate boiling below 2 0 0 ' C . , which would include approximately a third of t h e kerosene, could'be used as motor fuel, t h e quantity of t h e latter available would be doubled. Such motor fuel would have a gravity of approximately 56" B6. The manufacturer of casing-head gasoline is i n creasing t h e production slightly, b u t the maximum production from this source is small, probably riot more t h a n a million barrels annually. The United States Geological Survey gives t h e production of natural gas gasoline in this country in 1913 as jj1,ooo barrels of 4 2 gallons. Singer, in Petvoleurn, 9 (I913), 453, gives the U. S. production in 1912 as 1 2 , 081,000 gallons or about 2 8 7 , 0 0 0 barrels. Yet if I , j o o , ooo automobiles use I O barrels each per year we asrive a t a grand total gasoline consumption of 15, ooo,ooo barrels in this country for automobiles alone. Casing-head gasoline cannot therefore meet more t h a n a small fraction of t h e requirement. Not all of this will be available for motor purposes, as special uses for it have already been found. The methods which have been suggested for t h e recovery of similar products are of only very minor importance, such as the condensation of t h e gases from petroleum stills, which ordinarily escape uncondensed. Groeling ( D . R . P., 246,935 of 1909) absorbs t h e uncondensed vapors by passing t h e m through naphtha. Blau (U.S. P a t . 994,369 of 1911) subjects oil gas to pressure and separates a low boiling gasoline. Wolff (U.S. P a t . 1 , o o o , 6 j j of 1911) liquefies a similar product b y t h e LindC effect. The production of shale oil cannot, a t present, be considered a factor. Sir Boverton Redwood ( J . Roy. Soc. A r t s . , Dec. 2 6 , 1913) claims t h a t motor fuel from Scotch shale oil contributed last year only 0 . 7 5 per cent of England's consumption of motor fuel. T h e shale oil industry appears t o be in a static condition, t h e production in 1913 having been only 3 per cent greater t h a n in 1904. Benzol, from coal t a r , has found some favor in Europe for motor vehicles, b u t t h e largest possible supply is very small compared with t h e requirements. I n I 91 2 England consumed 80,000,000 gallons of gasoline and produced 8,000,ooo gallons of crude benzol ( J . SOC. Chem. Ind., 1913, 514): most of which was exported for use in other industries. T h e coal coked in by-product ovens in the United States in r g r 3 was approximately I 7,000,000 tons, according t o the estimate of H. C. Porter in t h e U. S. Bureau of Mines Technologic Paper, S o . 89. hIr. Porter estimates t h e p o s s i b l e production of benzol from this source a t about 600,000 barrels (of 42 gallons). There were actually produced, in 1913, about I Q O , O O O barrels b y passing t h e gas through heavy oil, a n d "possibly 24,000 barrels more b y t a r distillation. Much of this, about one-half, was used in enriching gas for illuminating purposes." T h e use of by-product ovens is increasing b u t , on t h e other h a n d , oil-gas a n d oil producer-gas plants are rapidly displacing t h e coal ret o r t , as t h e consumption of 13,800,000 barrels of oil in 1909 for gas making in this country show. D a t a
Mar., 191j
T H E JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
I79
applies, “Si molzumentum requiris, circumspice”-if you seek his monument, look about you. The chemist’s work is done chiefly in his laboratory out of sight of t h e public, and i t is largely, though vital, only contributory; t h a t is, except in t h e case of those industries of a purely chemical nature, such as t h e manufacture of chemicals, t h e chemist’s contribution is often absorbed in a larger whole, as for example in the steel industry, a n d t h u s lost t o t h e view of all except those who have a n intimate knowledge of the circumstances. These, a n d not t h e chemist’s native modesty, are probably t h e chief reasons for t h e average man’s lack of familiarity with t h e field of applied chemistry. This is a condition, however, t h a t is continually changing. People in general are much better informed in technical matters now t h a n they were a great many years ago, and this information is continually spreading. The recent crisis in this country brought on by t h e war has brought home more definitely t h a n ever before t h e value of the chemist in industry, while a t t h e same time, in spite of t h e spread of information, it has shown more clearly t h a n ever before, as for example in newspaper discussions of t h e dye situation, how little appreciation there is of t h e MOTORTESTSW’ITH DIFFERENT MIXTURES OF ALCOHOI.AND BENZOL enormous development chemistry has undergone a n d RESULTS COMPARED WITH GASOLINESTANDARD PER CENT t h e time this development has required. Power Fuel consumption Alcohol Benzol 1 per cent less 3 per cent less 50 50 A time like this, then, would seem particularly pro8.9 per cent greater 33 3 8 per cent less 66.7 8 . 5 per cent less 2 4 . 5 per cent greater 25 75 pitious for any undertaking t h a t would crystallize So far, all attempts t o adapt t h e heavy oil engines out in t h e minds of t h e public t h e knowledge already of t h e Diesel t y p e t o motor vehicles have failed. present in a more or less amorphous shape of what It seems certain, therefore, t h a t gasoline, including chemistry today means, and at t h e same time a d d a t h e lighter part of kerosene, is for motor vehicles t h e large amount of new information of t h e same kind. undisputed necessity of t h e day, a n d t h a t there is Such a n undertaking would be of reciprocal benefit nothing seriously t o compete Kith i t so long as its t o t h e public and t h e chemical profession. retail cost does not exceed about 40 cents per gallon, The most direct agency of t h a t kind would be a n a t which figure alcohol may possibly become a com- exhibition modeled after t h e electrical a n d gas shows petitor. Redwood a n d Lewes regard t h e eventual a n d many others of the same kind held in New York employment of alcohol as a motor fuel as inevitable annually. It ought t o draw t h e public, for i t would [Chem. Abs., 7 (1913), 3410; Redwood, J. Roy. SOC. not only be a novelty b u t would contain exhibits Arts, Dec. 26, 19131. Estimating t h e present pro- fully as spectacular, interesting a n d instructive as duction of gasoline i n this country as 2j,000,000 those of other shows. It ought t o draw t h e support barrels of 4 2 gallons each, t h e amount of corn required to of manufacturers of chemicals, chemical products, produce t h e same volume of 96 per cent alcohol by fer- chemical apparatus a n d related products, because i t mentation would be approximately 450,000,000 bushels, would offer unusual advertising facilities. It ought a n amount certain t o affect prices t o a marked degree, t o have behind it t h e whole profession because i t would in view of t h e fact t h a t we have no corn for export. broaden and stimulate interest in chemistry a n d apIncreasing t h e available supply of gasoline by crack- preciation of its value. ing, particularly by distilling under pressure, has long It is not possible here t o go into t h e number or kind been known t o be a possibility; in fact Dewar and of exhibits t h a t could be placed on view, b u t t h e possiRedwood patented such a process twenty years ago, b u t with t h e object of manufacturing illuminating bilities are so great t h a t it would probably be more necessary t o limit t h e field t h a n t o seek t o enlarge oil, not gasoline. BENJAMINT. BROOKS it. Against t h e scheme may be presented t h e facts t h a t WHY NOT A CHEMICAL SHOW? i t would be a n experiment, t h a t it would be expensive, It has often been said t h a t of all professional work and t h a t t o carry i t out some new.organization would t h e chemist’s is least known t o t h e general public. probably have to be formed. The only answer t o The bar is known more or less through t h e press, t h e these points would be some general expression of clergy through t h e pulpit, t h e physician meets all opinion of those interested. particularly those likely classes in t h e course of his work, a n d t o t h e architect t o become exhibitors. MARSTONL. HANLIN and t h e engineer Sir Christopher Wren’s epitaph
on the possible production of benzol from oil-gas t a r are not available. Benzol has been recommended as a valuable addition t o alcohol for motor purposes. Alcohol, as a motor fuel, has received considerable attention. Although 9 j per cent alcohol has little more t h a n half the calorific value of gasoline of 0.710 specific gravity (5833 C. as compared with 10611 C.), i t gives a relatively higher efficiency, owing t o its greater ease of combustion, smaller proportion of air required for complete combustion, a n d greater compression with a slightly cooler cycle. It is possible t h a t engines will be perfected which will be better adapted t o alcohol t h a n t h e prese n t gasoline motor. However, industrial denatured alcohol has failed t o reach t h e low prices predicted for it. It is now quoted a t 37 cents per gallon, and for the same results in a gasoline motor, would be a t least 20 per cent more costly t h a n gasoline at 40 cents per gallon. It is significant t h a t denatured alcohol has not heretofore been used as motor fuel in England even when gasoline sold for 38 t o 4 2 cents per gallon. Ormandy (Zeitschr. f. angew. Chem., S914, Ref. 177) has recently published t h e following results of tests made with different mixtures of alcohol and benzol. [Cf. Moyer, Power, 1914,p. j691.
