A Structured Approach to Teaching Applied Problem Solving through Technology Assessment Fritz A. Fkchbach and Nancy J. Sell College of Environmental Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Green Bay. Green Bay, WI 54301 When i t comes to problem s o l h g , chemistry students generally are taught t o think analytically (I).This is accomplished primarily through questions based on logically coherent models. T o a lesser extent, these students are taught inductive reasonine processes aimed a t the construction of such models. Yet, most of the professional-level problems they will face are not exclusively scientific in either of these ways. On the contrary, the problems are usually industrially oriented, ill-defined, and based on situations that can be only partly modeled through scientific knowledge and for which the completion of a scientific foundation is impractical in the timemailable for solving the problem (2). For example, a problem in a chemistry or even an engineering texton determining the most efficient physical condition for the production of ammoniamay be quite different from the oroblem of increasine" the efficiencv of ammonia production in a real plant. Differences arise on several levels. The chemical process in a text is usuallv an idealized severalvariable mathematical model version bf the actual production process, which can he described onlv hv semi-empirical models consisting of a complex cornbihation of materials properties and mechanical variables affected by a variety of bconomicand social factors.Thun the actual definition ofthe pn~hlemis lrss clrur than the direct stawment usually given In a text. In the practical context, the concept of efficiency is also less well defined. Therefore, the objective that a solution to a nrohlem should aim a t is less clear. Values and "horse sense" must contribute t o its definitions. Once defined, the practical problem often requires extensive research in an effort to define the system better and survey solutions from like-type situations. There is, however, another major activity of deciding how to proceed with solution development. In the purely analytical case, the constraints of the model and the logical reasoning they allow are enough to propel one forward to a single logically provable solution. For the practical situation, the reasoning which occurs in the context of partial models has to be supplemented by creative thinking which is often divergent and seemingly disregards the solution criteria. Generally a list of ideas is arrived at, and a process of creative but practical evaluation and often subjective judgment rather than deductive processes dominate. Thus in the case of the ammonia prohlem, non-analytical-type prohlem solving may define the problem as one of poor energy utilization and thus the redesign of the process insulation system may he the objective. Furthermore, the problem may not he solved bv a single person a t all, but b; a group within which personaiities hive to function according to alternating patterns of deferred .. judgment and criticism. The importance of creative thinking and the ability to solve ill-defined problems is now recognized by many, particularly in industrial settings. T o encourage and develop these skills, short courses such as that available through the American Chemical Society (Creative Problem Solving Techniaues) are now beine tauebt (3). I t was. therefore. decidedAath e University of ~ i s c o n s i n l ~ r e ~ e n a that y we would attempt to enhance these skills in our eraduate science studen& before they join the work force. This paper describes a method to train students to make a 522
Journal of Chemical Education
transition between the analytical and creative prohlem-solving approaches when situations demand. This is accomplished in the context of Technoloev Assessment (TA). ~echnologiesand particularly technological problem; cannot he treated purely using analytical methods. Yet there is enough of analytical reasoning throughout TA that the science student has a familiar problem-solving approach on which to build. For this reason, TA provides an ideal vehicle for the development of creative reasoning skills while a t the same time enhancing the students' concepts and understanding of technological situations. The approach taken in TA parallels and contrasts other approaches to the applied problem-solving process. The Wales Guided Desien ~ o r o a c holaces maior emnhasis on ., a.. understunding and using the framework of the process ( 4 , 5 ) . Particular emohasis is placed on oroblem definition. Another excellent approach isthat takeh by Reid in his manual (3), placing greater emphasis on the reasoning strategies underlying the stages of the process, and providing examples of their use. Our approach has been to combine a reasoning strategies appro&h with a particular open area, namely, T A A manual was also developed (6). Divided roughly into the major stages and substages of the applied problem-solving process, it follows the pattern of reasoning strategy definition. examoles. exercises. and final inteeration into a student term probiem. his emphasis on the stFategies and a specific area we have found to he a useful addition to nrevious work for graduate classroom teaching. We believe this approach differs from most applied problem-solving methods in that it emphasizes the structured learning of specific reasoning skills in the context of the limited area of TA. The skills, how they differ from typical scientific analytical skills, and how their use differs from those in othe; approaches to applied problem solving, are described below according to the major stages of the TA process. Technology Assessment In recent years, technology assessment has become a respected activity. In 1972 the U S . government established a bipartisan agency called the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). Its task has been to alert Congress to scientific and technical developments that might critically affect national oolicv . " (7). .. The problem may actually be a technology (e.g., ahoveeround disposal of soent oil shale), or, more commonlv, a ~echnologiEnllvhasei problem whose solution may involie a varietv oi selentific activities (ex., reducing sulfur dioxide emivsions or improving nitrogen removal at a sewage treatment olant). The majority of these prohlems require some chemistry hackground foitheir analysis and solution. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), originally established in Paris in 1960, released a book, "Society and the Assessment of Technology", in 1973 by Hetman (8).and then in the spring of 1983 it issued a new series of studies on why technology assessment is needed and the directions it seems to he takine (9). Meanwhile, policy makers, at least in the u.S.; have increasingly heeded the recommendations of such groups. For
example, President Reagan's proposal for "dense-packed"
Bask Structure ol a Technology Assessment
MX missile basing was developed as a result of an OTA recommendation; Congress rejected former President Carter's proposed scheme tn build a full-scale shale oil production facilitv in favor of several smaller-sized efforts., due to --. .. an OTA report; Medicare now reimburses the cost of antipneumonia vaccinations because the OTA reported it would be much more cost effective to do so, rather than pay only for treatment of this disease. Such examples show that TA is an important activity if we are to live comfortably with technology. Though "technology assessment" has not yet developed into a recognized "discipline" such as chemistry, physics, or the various areas in engineering, science studentsshould learn how t o participate in the learning of thinking patterns building on and hordering analytical reasoning plus the application of these patterns to problems in which both science and social-centered systems are major ingredients. In spite of the number of writings on TA (see, for example, reference lo), there is no one prescribed way in which an assessment must he conducted. In fact, most writings on the subject do not provide any methodology that could actually he followed (11,12). The authors used the general scheme listed in the tahle. The techniques suaaested have been adapted from various prohlem-solving &idecision-making areas (3,13,14). Nevertheless, i t is a testimony to their truly interdisciplinary nature that the wording and the pattern of their use is quite similar here. These techniques, which are aenerallv a mixture of loeical and imaeinative thinkine. are a-~ critical feature in TA. i f the stud&t can gain sufficient proficiency with them, then the desim of TA Drocesses. which arestrongly dependent on the specific situation and personal choice, will be greatly enhanced.
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Commonly Used Thinking Techniques
Fmblem Finding-Analysis
and Definition
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Library Research Consultations wim experts Analysis diagram Morphological tables Analysis models Relevance system
Determination and definitlon of
Redwfinltion Successive abshanions Why technique
specific problems and objectives on which to focus Specific problem research and Written summary of its definition and analysis
Briefing document
Solution Development-ideation Evaiuatlon and Judgment ldeatiwlto develop potential solutions
Brainstorming or synectics hamewMk: Analogies Morphoiwical force$ connections Thought startwrs Wishful thinking
Evaluationto make Meas pranice
Library research Consultations with experts
Judgment of which solution(s) best, to be impiemented
Paired-comparison, evaluation grid Delphi technique
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Problem Analvslr and Deflnlilon Problem finding, as previously indicated, can be suhdivided into two aeneral areas: analvsis and definition. ~ r o b l e m a n a i ~ sisi sthe separatibn of theapparenttechnological prohlem into its components within a particular boundary, the understanding of these components or dimensions, and their synthesis into a coherent pattern of relationships. I t constitutes in TA at least a first approximation to understanding the situation. For a strictly analytical prohlem, the boundary is usually clear and the prohlem dimensions are readily inferable from the physical situation or models which quantitatively tie together the main dimensions. Science students usually predefine a technological situation and then eo on to analvze i t thorouehlv. This is a misplaced aspect of analytical reasoning. Problem definitlon should be held in abevance until a semt-thoroueh " analvsis is made. Most of the analvses techniques themselves are rather similar in the two problem-solving systems. Students quickly adapt to the non-analytical procedures even though simple physical pictures and formulas often have been replaced or heavily supplemented by black boxes, flow charts, and a loose systems approach reminescent of an organizational tahle. Several analysis rules of thumb are in common useand should he considered (14). I t is wise to limit one's renertoire ~ ~ to three or four such %hods, because this is manageable and more than adeauate. Problem definitibn presents quite a different way of thinking about alternative problem statements. somethine chemistry students are nocoften enough asked to do. SC: ence students usually have ~ r o b l e m defined s for them. How the specific problemis finally defined can, of course, have a major impact on the "solutions". For example, in the case of SO2 emissions, if the prohlem is primarily the effect on human health, a potential solution is to dilute the emissions by equipping power plants and some industries with taller stacks. But if the prohlem is acid rain caused by too
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Technology analysis of broad problem area into key dimsnslons
Solutim Impiementatlon-Planning Determinationof "wrties of interesv and ''decision apparatus" for proposwd solution Development of recommendation for implementation
and Selling Library research. consultations with experts
Determinationof memods to "sell" the solution
much sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emitted by human activities, the solutions would not include dilution but instead sulfur removal by wing lower-sulfur coal, coal cleaning, wet scrubbers, or electrostatic preripitators. f t. m We find that the vraduace science student all ton. o.-. . . views prohlem definkion (once a manageable prohlem is found) as having onlv one oossihle outcome. Prohlem definition rathcr sho&d h i a generation of several prublem views. Objectivesmust then he develooed for each of these nrnblem staiements. These alternative-definitions must c d n s t a n t ~ ~ be viewed in terms of the goals of the broad orohlem situation as the assessor seeks to find the key prdhlem to tackle first. Students encounter difficulty with the concept of a prohlem objective, often confusing it with the goals or a solution. The objective is the desired endpoint rather than the reasons for being in the problem area or the means of getting to a solution. As with prohlem analysis, learning to become a better prohlem definer is both a matter of learning through specific examples and practicing generally applicable skills. Again, about half a dozen skills are needed, including developing a morphological table. Asking why and comparing past to present (Kepner Tregoe) are also often used (14). As an example of the use of a method. alternative oroblem definition objectives can frequently be obtained from an original one by the use of successive abstractions. The oriei" nal prohlem statement can be made either more or less abstract, as illustrated. ~
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Acid rain may be enhanced by SO2 emissions. Acid rain can be a severe environmental problem. Volume 63 Number 6 June 1986
523
Original statement Arid rain can decreade the pH of certain lnkea. Arid rain can lead to a dewease in certain desirable fish species. Acid rain can lower the survival rate of young More specific fish. Methods should he developed to decrease the effect of acid rain on the survival rate of young fish. Clearly the problem on which to focus could he significantly different, depending on which problem statement is used.. Once the problem is clear, an objective must he established. This choice continually affects solution directions. The acid rain problem situation seen as an acidification of lakes might he solved meeting the ohjective of increasing lake pH. On the other hand, if seen as a fish survival prohlem, the ohjective might he entirely different, perhaps one of develonment of new resistant fish strains. In general, problemdefinition is the key to the TA process and the activ~tvon which the most effort has to he nlaced in training students. Its nature as a multi-alternative and value guided process makes i t no less comprehensible t o one accustomed to ready made and defined situations. ~~~
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The Brleflng Document The hridge between problem definition and solution findine" is the "hriefine- document". A good briefing- document . summarizes initial problem analysis, definition, and areview of the literature. I t includes details on the technology and the physical and social areas it affects. Chemistry students have little difficulty with most concepts underlying this documentation process. They are also usually competent in preparing term papers and are familiar with the librarv research and oreanization skills needed. However, the solution development plan, while implicit in analvtical reasoning. must he given more thought in TA. choice of backgrou& informatkn, social contextbf solution findine and ideation techniaues most appropriate to the partickar situation must he explicit. hef feat ire of preparing a group. of peers for participation in a problem rather . than presenting largely cbntentis particulaily not familiar to the student inexperienced with preparation for creative thinking such as done by a TA group. Solutlon Flndlng Analytical reasoning would a t this stage proceed to relate information to a model, or require modification of a model, and proceed by logically tested, if not always logically chosen. thinkine techniaues to build a coherent process to a usually single and arguably correct solution. The well-modeled situation is finite. factual. and -generallv mathematically described. There are several unfamiliar elements in the development of a solution for an open-type problem in which most graduate students need, therefore, t o he instructed. First, they have to realize that the better solutions come out of an evolutionary process whose objective is often a large number of ideas. These ideas are eenerated in several wavs usuallv characterized by deferred judgment and seemingly irrelevant sources. I t is generally best to allow almost all suggestions that might lead to an understanding of the situation, rather than expect nractical solutions a t the beginning. . . - Premature criticism, rather than idea improvement first, is a difficult habit to overcome. Science students also have much to learn about such idea development in the group context. Two or three ways of managkg group ideaiion-and more than a half dozenidea development techniques are a learning objective of this course: ~rainstorming,which encourages the generation of many ideas and deferred judgment, is a favored overall framework within which most students choose t o work.
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524
Journal of Chemical Education
Some students instead choose to use the synectics group method (1.5).Synectics spans the stages from objective settine to idea evaluation. I t is a narticularlv good nrocess for teaihing science students the contrasts betwee' analytical and nonanalvtical thinkine. ". both of which are Present. Its use of an excursion process to find unusual sources of ideas is excellent. Other techniques used range from the almost mechanical and relevant ideation of morphological forced connections to the divergent and speculati;e technique of incubation (14). Accordingly, ideas produced can range from essentially a final solution t o little more than the start of something with perhaps little more than good intentions. The latter concept, while i t first mav be difficult t o a c c e. ~.tis . m .i t e often the core of creativity in the TA process. Solutlon Evaluatlon, Judgment, and lmplementatlon While the ideation Drocess mav test the science students' patience a t withholdihg criticism, the evaluation and judgment process again allows this natural instinct to flourish. But before i t does entirely, ideas must be given a chance hy making them as practical as possible before the winnowing of the decision-making process. Creative evaluation can be the effort that turns a fundamentally correct hut imperfect idea into a practical one, saving i t from premature removal. Thus strenethened. ideas face the com~arisonwith the scientific, engineering, economic, and social criteria developed in the definition process. If the subject matter has been studied well enough, the chemistry student should be able to deal with at least the first two criteria areas and, with some assistance, a t least make some opinion based judgments based on the others. The point here is not so much to master the decision-making process underlying the problem area as to learn that the process is more than one using scientific criteria onlv. Once a sdlution is found, i t is not entirely u p to the student to decide how it should he im~lemented.In order to make a recommendation, it is necessary to determine both the "parties a t interest". that is. who is affected hv this technolow modifications, and the .:decision apparaand the tus". those individual5 or groups who are responsible for making the final decision. hes sea re the people &ho must be convinced that the suggestions are appropriate and heneficial. Within an industry, these may be one's fellow engineers and management: in a community, they may be a numher of interest &ups, individual citizens, or the local government. Conclusions Technology Assessment has been taught four times a t the University of Wisconsin-Green Bas. Although evolving in approachand organization from term to term'its basic skills and content objectives have remained the same. Any course which sets out to reorient student thinking processes in one term, in contrast to the learning of knowledge, must fall short in the former more than in the latter obiective. Thinking skills are best introduced and reinforEed selectively throughout a student's education. Success in a course such as this is thus better judged in terms of understanding concents and learnine facts rather than competence in modes of thkkiug which, for most, is ohtainahld only from a good problem-solving curriculum plus years of "real world" prac-
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Nevertheless, students are readily seen t o progress in understanding. Evidence of TA-type thinking progress, however less than desired, is clear in terms of oral presentations, the exam, and the term paper. Though mostof the class is readily converted to seeing TA as a series of stages, fewer appreciate the need t o cultivate a variety of thinking strategies useful in each of these stages. The structure of the course ensures repeated exposure to them nevertheless, and appreciation of their general value often must await postcourse problem solving.
Volume 63
Number 6
June 1986
525
