Article Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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Adapted-Consumer-Technology Approach to Making Near-InfraredReflectography Visualization of Paintings and Murals Accessible to a Wider Audience Alexa Torres and McKenzie A. Floyd*
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Boise Art Museum, 670 Julia Davis Drive, Boise, Idaho 83702, United States ABSTRACT: Smartphone technology has the potential to make heritage science accessible to museums, individual collectors, and educators. Infrared reflectography (IRR) is a nondestructive analysis method used by museums to gain information about the provenance, history, and aging of artworks. This paper introduces a highly accessible, inexpensive apparatus for near-infrared (NIR) imaging of paintings: a long-pass filter with a 750 nm cut-on wavelength mounted on a Samsung HTC smartphone backfacing camera. This method proved effective in improving visibility of underdrawings, as well as in the detection of compositional changes by the artist, retouchings, and original-composition elements obscured by damage or aging. Egg− tempera test panels, historic oil paintings, and wall murals were all imaged with the NIR-smartphone apparatus. The research presented in this paper demonstrates the potential of adapted consumer technology for interdisciplinary scientific investigation in museums and at heritage sites, which has the potential to raise public understanding of heritage science. This simple and affordable approach is a promising tool for teaching the importance of and principles behind the scientific investigation of artworks. KEYWORDS: Undergraduate Research, General Public, First-Year Undergraduate/General, Continuing Education, Interdisciplinary/Multidisciplinary, Public Understanding/Outreach, Computer-Based Learning, Applications of Chemistry, IR Spectroscopy
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Saunders25 states that public involvement in conservation is a “positive act of engagement” that can “solidify common values and nurture a collective sense of responsibility”. Making heritage science more accessible through the use of consumer technology is one way to achieve this.
INTRODUCTION Infrared reflectography (IRR) has been used extensively in the analysis of artworks for several decades. Many pigments that are opaque in the visible range because of absorbance or particle light scattering are transparent to some degree in the near-IR (NIR, 750−1400 nm or longer) range. This allows for nondestructive examination to gain additional information.1−6 Applications of IRR include differentiation of compositional features,7 detection of underdrawings,8 identification of pigments,9,10 attribution,11 and authentication.12 A number of different types of camera have been used for IRR, the most affordable options for professional conservation work being CCD cameras and modified DSLR cameras.13,14 These options still present obstacles for many small institutions, however, because of the cost of modifications or the lack of know-how for analytical-camera usage. Smartphone technology presents the opportunity for inexpensive, easy-to-use heritage science that can be performed by students and other nonprofessionals.
Using Smartphones for Chemistry Education
Many smartphone cameras have the capacity to detect nearinfrared (NIR) wavelengths.26−28 Although some companies, such as Apple, have installed IR-blocking filters in the backfacing cameras of recent models,29 certain smartphone cameras, such as the HTC One M7 and front-facing (i.e., “selfie”) cameras on Apple products, still have NIR-detection capabilities and therefore present an opportunity to be used as inexpensive analytical tools. Because of the ubiquity of smartphones, scientists and educators have developed new ways of using them for introducing scientific principles to a wider audience at low cost. Sobral30 reports the adaptation of smartphones to metal detectors in the teaching laboratory, Lumetta and Arcia31 have developed a smartphone microscope to observe precipitation and dissolution phenomena, and sound analysis using smartphones has been investigated by a number of groups.32 In recent years, a number of studies have been published that demonstrate the many applications of smartphones as spectroscopic tools in introductory chemistry courses.33−37 Badyopadhyay and Rathod38 have shown that smartphones are
Education Initiatives in Science and Art
It has been demonstrated that courses addressing the intersection of science and art can be successful in helping students engage with chemistry concepts.15−20 Courses specifically geared toward conservation have been undertaken and reported by Wells and Haaf,21 Alcantara-Garcia and Szelewski,22 and Hayes,23 and these courses demonstrate significant interest in this field by both educators and students alike. A 2005 report by Whitmore et al.24 identifies “educational activities that will exploit the appeal of conservation to engage and train students in science” as one of the “four areas of particular need in conservation science”. © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
Received: October 4, 2018 Revised: April 4, 2019
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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00808 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX
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not only useful for making spectroscopic measurements inexpensive but can also be used as assistive devices for colorblind and visually impaired students to identify solutioncolor changes in the laboratory. Using Consumer Technology To Make Heritage-Science Research More Accessible
The potential for using consumer technology to make conservation science accessible beyond large institutions has been investigated, although to a lesser extent than in other areas of science. One such project is Weiss’s introduction of a smartphone-based method to test the hypothesis that newspaper yellowing is related to access frequency.39 Weiss’s method demonstrates that smartphones can be used to yield reliable data on the visual properties of aging newspapers and reveals a potential application of citizen science in the heritage sector through the use of smartphones. Smith et al.40 have demonstrated the use of an inexpensive night-vision-camera webcam, modified with a long-pass filter and paired with a laptop computer, for IRR imaging of artworks in “chemistry-ofart” courses. They state that this method has the potential to make students “aware of some of the diverse applications of physics and chemistry in the field of art conservation, and more generally to the role of the sciences in the humanities”. Falco41 has done similar work with a commercial 8 megapixel digital camera. In this paper, we introduce an apparatus and associated method that make IRR affordable and accessible to small institutions, individual consumers, and educators. This research demonstrates the potential of a Samsung HTC One back-facing camera paired with a long-pass filter with a cut-on wavelength above the visible range to serve as a highly accessible tool for basic art analysis. The primary applications discussed in this paper are underdrawing detection, elucidation of compositional changes by the artist, detection of retouchings done after the work was completed, and clarification of compositional details obscured by damage or aging. This research takes advantage of the familiarity, accessibility, and low cost of using smartphones for spectroscopic analysis in classroom and museum settings. Unlike the method of Smith et al., the setup presented here does not require the use of a laptop computer or computer software and can be used with any smartphone camera that does not have a built-in IR filter. It is inexpensive and highly portable. Our method relies on familiar technology and a simple setup to provide the opportunity for a wider audience to learn about and be involved in heritage science. This research, conducted at California State University, Monterey Bay, was made possible by the support of a small university-based grant, simultaneously providing research experience for undergraduate students and benefiting a local arts institution by providing it with additional information about pieces in its collection.
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Figure 1. Sample layout of a tempera test panel. Each section was marked with charcoal “X”. Section A was left free of paint, whereas sections B−F were coated with paint of varied thicknesses.
the binder in a 1:1 ratio. Tempera paint was applied to five of the six sections on each panel in increasing thickness. Section A on each panel was left free of paint to serve as a comparison point between the visual and NIR images. The tempera paint was measured in average mass of pigment applied per area, with the most concentrated pigment distribution totally obscuring the underdrawing when viewed with an unfiltered camera or a naked eye. As pigments differ significantly in their absorption and reflection of NIR wavelengths,6 three different pigments were imaged. Panel Green was painted with Williamsburg Dry Pigment Italian Pompeii Red (Golden Artist Colors, Inc., New Berlin, NY). The painted sections ranged from of 5.77 ± 0.08 mg/cm2 pigment coverage in Section B to 25.3 ± 0.3 mg/cm2 in Section F. Panel Red was painted with Williamsburg Dry Pigment Viridian. The painted sections ranged from 4.60 ± 0.06 mg/cm2 coverage in Section C to 14.5 ± 0.2 mg/cm2 in Section F. Panel White was painted with Williamsburg Dry Pigment Titanium White. The painted squares ranged from 7.62 ± 0.10 mg/cm2 coverage in Section B to 19.3 ± 0.3 mg/ cm2 in Section F. Historic-Oil-Painting Selection
Three oil paintings were selected for examination from the Monterey Museum of Art’s permanent collection: The Green Boat, St. Tropez by E. Charlton Fortune, oil on canvas, ca. 1925; Untitled (Portrait of a Woman in Green) by an unknown artist, oil on canvas, date unknown (possibly 19th century); and Blessing of the Slaves by an unknown Spanish Colonial artist, oil on wooden panel, date estimated to be 17th century. These paintings were selected because of their varied ages and painting styles, as well as interest by museum staff in obtaining more information about said paintings.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Tempera-Test-Panel Preparation
Three 15 × 12.5 cm wooden panels were painted with two layers of Artist’s Loft White Acrylic Gesso (Artist’s Loft, Irving, TX). After application, the gesso was sanded with 220 grit sandpaper to eliminate any significant texture interference. The panels were divided into six sections (Figure 1), each of which was marked with a charcoal “X”. The egg−tempera binder was made by combining egg yolk and tap water in a 1:1 ratio. The pigment was then ground with
Fort Ord Military-Mural Selection
The military mural chosen for imaging is located on the historic Fort Ord Army post in Monterey County, CA. It is B
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located on the south exterior of building 4408 and has faded significantly because of weathering since its creation prior to 2000.42,43 Visual Imaging
An HTC One M7 with an unfiltered Ultrapixel back-facing camera (HTC Corporation, Taoyuan City, Taiwan) was used to photograph the painted panels and historic paintings under visible light. Ambient and overhead lighting was used for illumination, and all images were taken at approximately 30 cm distance from the paintings.
Figure 3. Longpass-filter setup for the NIR-smartphone.
Slaves, which had a highly varnished surface, and the Fort Ord military mural. To discern details of The Blessing of the Slaves and avoid glare, images were taken at various distances with altered lighting angles. Because of the size and location of the mural, images were several meters away from the wall using sunlight as illumination for both unfiltered and NIR images.
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FINDINGS
Tempera-Test-Panel NIR Imaging
Table 1 outlines the extent to which the NIR-smartphone revealed underdrawings through increasing pigment thicknesses of Pompeii Red, Viridian, and Titanium White pigments. The aim of these panels was to test the apparatus’s ability to improve visibility of underdrawings as compared with the naked eye rather than to replicate standard temperapainting thicknesses. Figure 4 shows that the NIR HTC camera setup was able to image underdrawings through Pompeii Red pigment layers up to 19.9 ± 0.2 mg/cm2 with minimal absorption by the pigment and with partial obscurity of the underdrawing at 25.3 ± 0.3 mg/cm2. The NIR-smartphone detected underdrawings through the maximum attempted Viridian Green pigment thickness (14.5 ± 0.2 mg/cm2) with virtually no interaction with the pigment (Figure 5). Figure 6 demonstrates that although the NIR-smartphone showed a slight improvement in visibility of underdrawings through Titanium White pigment, the effect was not significant. Thicknesses 10.8 ± 0.1 mg/cm2 and above showed near total obfuscation of the underdrawing because of reflectivity of the pigment.
Figure 2. NIR-illumination-source setup. The lights are angled down toward the tempera panel at an angle of approximately 27°.
Infrared Imaging
The HTC One M7 (Model HTC6500LVW, originally obtained from Verizon Wireless in 2014) with an Ultrapixel back-facing camera was used to take the infrared images. An Andover Corporation (Salem, NH) long-pass filter (cut-on wavelength: 750 ± 10 nm, thickness: 3 ± 0.025 mm, diameter: 12.5 mm, transmission above 750 nm: 85%) was secured over the camera lens to block visible wavelengths (Figure 3). An Oring with a 0.8 cm diameter and 1 mm thickness was placed between the lens and the filter to serve as a spacer, though it was also found that this was not needed for NIR imaging. “NIR-smartphone” is used to describe this camera setup below. Exposure and focusing were controlled using the HTC One M7’s automatic camera settings. Although an IR surface thermometer was not used in this research, one could be easily paired with this method in order to monitor temperature changes to the painted surface in cases where the condition of the painting may be sensitive to such changes. Ecosmart (Sydney, Australia) 75 W soft white light bulbs were used as infrared-light sources set in 8.5 in. reflector lamps. The lamps were placed approximately 28 cm away from each other and approximately 30 cm away from the painted panels at a 27° downward-facing angle. Illumination by the soft white light bulbs was limited to the time necessary to obtain images. The NIR-smartphone was held approximately 30 cm away from and level with the panel to take the infrared images (Figure 2). Exceptions to this setup were The Blessing of the
Historic-Oil-Painting NIR Imaging
Images of The Green Boat, St. Tropez under visible and NIRsmartphone examination show compositional changes made by the artist during her painting process (Figure 7). Although the final painting shows a fisherman whose face and head are not covered, the NIR-smartphone reveals that the fisherman was originally painted wearing a wide-brimmed hat. Figure 8 further demonstrates the NIR-smartphone’s capability for detecting compositional changes. In the original composition of Untitled (Portrait of a Woman in Green), the sleeve curved at the shoulder and dropped at a steep angle, but C
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Table 1. Visibility of Charcoal Underdrawing through Pigment Layers Using the NIR-Smartphone Apparatus Pigment Color Italian Pompeii Red
Viridian
Titanium White
Section
Pigment Coverage (mg/cm2)
Visibility of Underdrawing with Unfiltered Smartphone
A B
none 5.77 ± 0.08
fully visible partially obscured
C
9.09 ± 0.11
D
14.1 ± 0.2
significantly obscured not visible
E
19.9 ± 0.2
not visible
F
25.3 ± 0.3
not visible
A B C D E F A B
none 9.09 ± 0.13 4.60 ± 0.06 8.75 ± 0.10 13.4 ± 0.2 14.5 ± 0.2 none 7.62 ± 0.10
C
8.00 ± 0.09
D
10.8 ± 0.1
fully visible partially obscured partially obscured partially obscured not visible not visible fully visible significantly obscured significantly obscured not visible
E
16.1 ± 0.2
not visible
F
19.3 ± 0.3
not visible
Visibility of Underdrawing with NIRSmartphone fully visible minimally obscured minimally obscured minimally obscured minimally obscured partially obscured fully visible fully visible fully visible fully visible fully visible fully visible fully visible partially obscured partially obscured significantly obscured significantly obscured significantly obscured
Figure 5. Tempera test Panel Green. (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIR-smartphone image demonstrating full visibility of the underdrawing for all attempted Viridian-pigment thicknesses.
Figure 6. Tempera test Panel White. (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIR-smartphone image demonstrating minimal improvement of underdrawing visibility through Titanium White pigment.
Figure 4. Tempera test Panel Red. (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIR-smartphone image demonstrating increased visibility of the underdrawing through Italian Pompeii Red pigment.
the artist extended the top of sleeve and changed the angle of the draping for the final version. In addition to changes made by the artist, the NIRsmartphone was used to visualize retouched areas. A number of retouchings are present in Blessing of the Slaves; because of extensive discoloration of the varnish, however, it is difficult to fully decipher areas of loss in the original paint layer. A number of retouchings were elucidated with the NIR-smartphone, making it easier to see losses in the original paint layer (Figure 9). These losses are smaller than the visible retouched areas in some cases, indicating that the retouchings extend over the borders of the original paint loss.
Figure 7. Unfiltered and NIR images of The Green Boat, St. Tropez (detail), E. Charlton Fortune, oil on canvas, ca. 1925. (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIR-smartphone image showing that the artist changed the final composition, eliminating the fisherman’s hat. The area of interest is circled. Photographs by the authors with permission from the Monterey Museum of Art.
Fort Ord Military-Mural NIR Imaging
Figure 10 shows that details obscured by aging, most notably the blue geometric sun symbol at the center of the insignia, D
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Figure 10. Unfiltered and NIR images of mural on south exterior wall of Bldg. 4408, Fort Ord. (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIRsmartphone image. The blue pigment at the center of the insignia is faded but shows significant absorption in NIR.
Figure 8. Unfiltered and NIR images of Untitled (Portrait of a Woman in Green) (detail), artist unknown, oil on canvas, n.d. (possibly 19th century). (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIR-smartphone image showing changes to the original composition. Arrows indicate where the drape of the sleeve was changed by the artist. The brightness of (b) was increased 30% in order to elucidate detail in the lower right corner. Photographs by the authors with permission from the Monterey Museum of Art.
compositional changes. This method has the potential to be used by small museums, individual collectors, and educators aiming to integrate consumer technology into interdisciplinary science lessons. It can be used with tempera test panels, such as those described above, to easily and inexpensively introduce IR-reflectography concepts and capabilities to students in the classroom. Additionally, the portability and accessibility of the NIR-smartphone setup makes it possible for teaching in situ, providing the opportunity for museums and other heritage sites to serve as scientific-learning environments and for students at the advanced level to perform their own analyses. Although the present work focuses on art analysis, this setup could potentially be adapted for rapid and affordable imaging in other fields, including agriculture44 and medicine45 and related course material. Further investigation into the analytical capacities of this method is needed, particularly in comparison with current available IRR methods. Additional chemical studies of the specific artworks imaged in this research would be useful to
were enhanced when the mural was imaged with the NIRsmartphone. Ambient sunlight provided the necessary lighting for imaging the mural. Though the light-blue pigment has faded, its absorption in the NIR range showed that it is still present, and the original composition is clearly visible when viewed with this apparatus. Many murals at Ford Ord have been damaged by age and exposure; this technique could help preserve some knowledge of the original designs.
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CONCLUSION Our NIR-smartphone setup presents an alternative, affordable option for elucidating underdrawings, retouchings, compositional details obscured by age, and previously undiscovered
Figure 9. Unfiltered and NIR images of retouchings on Blessing of the Slaves (detail), unknown artist (Spanish Colonial), oil on panel, 17th century. (a) Unfiltered smartphone image. (b) NIR-smartphone image showing several retouched areas. Areas of interest are circled. Photographs by the authors with permission from the Monterey Museum of Art. E
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Art, Jerusalem, Israel, May 25−30, 2008. https://pdfs. semanticscholar.org/b8ff/fafbc512964b67c1e20c9120c4b6f8b31d22. pdf (accessed April 4, 2019). (5) Mansfield, J. R.; Attas, M.; Majzels, C.; Cloutis, E.; Collins, C.; Mantsch, H. H. Near infrared spectroscopic reflectance imaging: a new tool in art conservation. Vib. Spectrosc. 2002, 28, 59−66. (6) Cucci, C.; Delaney, J. K.; Picollo, M. Reflectance Hyperspectral Imaging for Investigation of Works of Art: Old Master Paintings and Illuminated Manuscripts. Acc. Chem. Res. 2016, 49, 2070−2079. (7) Daffara, C.; Fontana, R. Multispectral Infrared Reflectography to Differentiate Features in Paintings. Microsc. Microanal. 2011, 17, 691−695. (8) Attas, M.; Cloutis, E.; Collins, C.; Goltz, D.; Majzels, C.; Mansfield, J. R.; Mantsch, H. H. Near-infrared spectroscopic imaging in art conservation: investigation of drawing constituents. J. Cult. Herit. 2003, 4, 127−136. (9) Cosentino, A. Identification of pigments by multispectral imaging; a flowchart method. Heritage Sci. 2014, 2, 8. (10) Delaney, J. K.; Walmsley, E.; Berrie, B. H.; Fletcher, C. F.. Multispectral Imaging of Paintings in the Infrared to Detect and Map Blue Pigments. In Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, 2005; pp 120−136. (11) Burgio, L.; Clark, R. J. H.; Sheldon, L.; Smith, G. D. Pigment Identification by Spectroscopic Means: Evidence Consistent with the Attribution of the Painting Young Woman Seated at a Virginal to Vermeer. Anal. Chem. 2005, 77, 1261−1267. (12) Kajiya, E. A. M.; Campos, P. H. O. V.; Rizzutto, M. A.; Appoloni, C. R.; Lopes, F. Evaluation of the veracity of one work by the artist Di Cavalcanti through non-destructive techniques: XRF, imaging and brush stroke analysis. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 2014, 95, 373− 377. (13) Consentino, A. A Practical Guide to Panoramic Multispectral Imaging. e-conservation Magazine 2013, 25, 76−85. https:// chsopensource.org/panoramic%20multispectral%20imaging.pdf (accessed April 4, 2019). (14) Gargano, M.; Ludwig, N.; Poldi, G. A new methodology for comparing IR reflectographic systems. Infrared Phys. Technol. 2007, 49, 249−253. (15) Lerman, Z. M. Chemistry for art and communication students. J. Chem. Educ. 1986, 63 (2), 142. (16) Uffelman, E. S. Teaching Science in Art. J. Chem. Educ. 2007, 84 (10), 1617. (17) Nivens, D. A.; Padgett, C. W.; Chase, J. M.; Verges, K. J.; Jamieson, D. S. Art, Meet Chemistry; Chemistry, Meet Art: Case Studies, Current Literature, and Instrumental Methods Combined To Create a Hands-On Experience for Nonmajors and Instrumental Analysis Students. J. Chem. Educ. 2010, 87 (10), 1089−1093. (18) Danipog, D. L.; Ferido, M. B. Using Art-Based Chemistry Activities To Improve Students’ Conceptual Understanding in Chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 2011, 88 (12), 1610−1615. (19) Gaquere-Parker, A. C.; Doles, N. A.; Parker, C. D. Chemistry and Art in a Bag: An Easy-To-Implement Outreach Activity Making and Painting with a Copper-Based Pigment. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (1), 152−153. (20) Sattar, R. The Chemistry of Photography: Still a Terrific Laboratory Course for Nonscience Majors. J. Chem. Educ. 2017, 94 (2), 183−189. (21) Wells, G.; Haaf, M. Investigating Art Objects through Collaborative Student Research Projects in an Undergraduate Chemistry and Art Course. J. Chem. Educ. 2013, 90 (12), 1616−1621. (22) Alcantara-Garcia, J.; Szelewski, M. Peak Race: An In-Class Game Introducing Chromatography Concepts and Terms in Art Conservation. J. Chem. Educ. 2016, 93 (1), 154−157. (23) Hayes, C. J. Adapting Visual Art Techniques via Collaborations with a Local Museum To Engage Students in an Interdisciplinary Chemistry and Art Course. In Liberal Arts Strategies for the Chemistry Classroom; ACS Symposium Series 1266; American Chemical Society:
further understand the elucidatory capabilities of this setup. However, as documented above, the enhancement of underdrawing visualization, compositional elucidation, and potential for discovery of compositional changes using this method are promising. Even given the limitation to certain smartphone models (or those models whose IR filters have been removed), this research demonstrates that the adaptation of consumer technology has the potential to make scientific investigation available to those institutions and individuals who may otherwise be unable to afford or do not have the training for higher-end instruments. This is particularly imperative in cultural heritage and other interdisciplinary fields, in which the need for technical examination is often unmet because of funding issues and which are in need of educational initiatives.24 Additionally, the portability of this apparatus and the lack of additional lighting needed for outdoor imaging makes it well-suited for examining artworks such as the historic Fort Ord murals. Because of its low cost and relative ease of use, the NIR-smartphone apparatus presented here is a promising step toward making investigation of artworks accessible to a wider audience.
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AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail:
[email protected]. ORCID
McKenzie A. Floyd: 0000-0002-4610-3190 Notes
Neither author is currently affiliated with California State University, Monterey Bay (CSUMB), where this research was undertaken. Alexa Torres is a master’s candidate at Touro University California, and McKenzie A. Floyd is Associate Curator of Art at the Boise Art Museum. The authors declare no competing financial interest.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was made possible by California State University’s Research Scholarship & Creative Activity (RSCA) funding. Special thanks goes to John Rexine, Manager of Collections and Exhibitions at the Monterey Museum of Art, for access to the museum’s collection. Thanks also goes to John Goeltz, Assistant Professor in the School of Natural Sciences at CSUMB, for his support and guidance.
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