J u n e , 1916
T H E JOCRrVAL O F I N D U S T R I A L A ATD E A7GI ?;E E RIA7 G C H E M I S T R Y
THE V A L U E OF THE B U I L D I N G A S D EQEIPMEXT
T h e original cost of t h e building e r e c t e d in 1 9 0 2 w a s little s h o r t of t h e t o t a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n which was $IOO,OOO. F o r e q u i p m e n t a special a p p r o p r i a t i o n of $zo,ooo w a s m a d e i n 1903, a n d f r e q u e n t a d d i t i o n s t o t h e s e a m o u n t s were m a d e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e . In t h e following e s t i m a t e of t h e p r e s e n t v a l u a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e p l a n t of t h e d e p a r t m e n t t h e i t e m s relating t o t h e old building a n d t h e s t o c k a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e rep o r t of t h e university comptroller J u n e 3 0 , 191j ,
547
a n d t h e d a t a concerning t h e n e w building were s u p plied b y t h e office of t h e s u p e r \ - k i n g a r c h i t e c t April 25,
1916:
.
Chemistry building (old portion). ....................... : Laboratory apparatus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Office equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Furniture.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Small apparatus and chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xew building, including permanent equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . TOTAi, Vai,uATION..
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$ 80,200.00 32,095.08 1,241.95 5,433.62 23,000.00 $400,000.00 $541,970.65
ADDRESSES While almost every branch of American industry has been directly or indirectly affected by the European war, its influences have been particularly felt upon all branches of chemical indusThe year 191j will always be a notable one in the history of chemical manufacture in the United States. For fifty years try. It has operated detrimentally to many lines of manufacseveral branches of chemical industry had been peering half- ture, but in the business connected with the furnishing of war formed through the mists of chemical and political economics. supplies there has naturally been a great stimulus to trade. For several decades other branches of manufacture had been Two great interests in the United States have been especially affected by malnutrition and had failed to grow in strength. acted upon by the prevailing war. The total cessation of the However, the present European war has exerted a reconstruc- shipment of potassium salts from Germany to this country tive action, and since the beginning of last year chemical in- has seriously disabled the American fertilizer industry; this dustry has borne rule over our other manufacturing activities. handicap has, in fact, resulted in material injury to the agriIndeed, the past year marked the commencement of a period cultural sections using fertilizers, particularly the cotton belt of industrial transition, national in scope, and characterized of the South.’ Likewise the almost total stoppage of shipments of dyestuffs from the great German factories, which ensued with by the serious endeavors of American enterprise and ingenuity to bridge the gap which has existed in the chemical industry the opening of the war, over a year ago, has been seriously felt of the United States as compared with that of Germany. I n throughout the textile, paint, and other of our industries in this stupendous undertaking, carried out so far with conspicuous which dyestuffs are consumed in large quantities. success, the industrialists of to-day have not collected the maAs the result of international negotiations, there have been, terials for the structure, but they have designed it and have from time to time, some transatlantic movements of dyestuffs and been active in the work of building. Although perhaps a weak potassium salts, mostly, it is understood, through neutral ports bridge, and built upon shifting sands, it has provided a t least adjacent to Germany. The United States has secured a share a temporary channel of escape from European dominance, of these commodities, but the importations of potash have been and i t is constantly being reinforced and otherwise strength- very limited indeed, when compared with the shipments of dyeened. stuffs which have occasionally reached the American markets. It has been indicated3 that the measure of a country’sapprecia- It has also been possible t o obtain supplies of certain needed tion of the value of chemistry in its material development and dyes through Swiss manufacturers, in exchange for intermediates the extent to which it utilizes this science in its manufactures, shipped from the United States to Switzerland. Then, too, generally measure quite accurately the industrial progress and there have been importations of logwood and other vegetable prosperity of that country. Moreover, the quality and value dyestuffs from colonial possessions of several of the warring of an industrial product are based upon the application of cor- nations. rect principles in its conception, preparation, and use, and the With such an acute situation confronting several of our leadcorrect principles can result only from scientific r e ~ e a r c h . ~ ing industries, there has naturally been great activity to The wonderful headway made so far by our newer chemical assist in meeting it, and especially to encourage the developindustries has resulted largely from carefully organized research, ment of a domestic production of potash fertilizer material and but we are still far behind the‘ pace which Germany has started. dyestuffs within the nation; and material progress has been made We must therefore strive for a greater recognition of the national in the production of dyes and chemicals from the increasing value of industrial research. quantities of intermediates supplied from many new sources THE WAR AND ITS CHEMICAL INFLUENCES throughout the country. The present crisis has, in fact, evoked A t the expense of the unfortunate warring countries, the manu- deep interest on the part of all concerned-tar distillers, manufacturers of the United States have played a most important facturers of chemicals, manufacturers of dyestuffs, the many users of dyes, and American economists. The producers of part in the markets of the world in the last thirteen months, and all possible efforts are being made through individual en- “by-product coke” have shown a gratifying readiness to multiply terprise and through various commercial organizations to deal their recovery plants for the production of benzol and tar, and adequately with the export situation. IVot only has the war considerable capital and experience have been embarked in steps opened the gates of world-wide commerce to the United States, to build up a distinctly American coal-tar chemical industry. but it has .provided a tariff wall that has allowed our nation to THE MAXUFACTURE OF PRODUCTS FORMERLY IMPORTED FROM develop its industries along broad lines. EUROPE THE WAR AND AMERICAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY’ By RAYMOND F. BACON%
9 general paper presented a t the Urbana Meeting of the American Chemical Society, on April 18. 1916 Director of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa. 3 Bacon, Science, 40 (1914). 871-81. Bacon, Sci. A m . Suppl., 80 (1915), 334.
The developments which have recently taken place in the manufacture of products formerly imported largely or entirely 1 T h e grand total of the world’s sale of potassium salts by Germany amounted t o 680,000 metric tons of actual KzO in 1915 as against 904.000 metric tons in 1914.
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T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L ALVD E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
from Europe, are primarily instanced by the activity of those manufacturers who are interested in the industries discussed below. AMERICAN COAL PRoDucTs-under prevailing abnormal conditions, quite a large number of small plants have been erected for the production of products derived from coal. On the whole, these are now being qperated a t a pleasing profit; but a t the end of the war many of them will probably fall like autumn leaves. While it is true that some of them may stmggle on and pawn their war-bridal gifts in a hopeless endeavor to establish permanent business, only those which have been constructed on a sound economic basis will be numbered among the eventual survivors. It is well known to chemists that the manufacture of products derived from coal is not an industry per se. It is, in fact, based upon, or rather an extension of, the manufacture of certain halogens, mineral acids, and alkalies. It follows from this dependence that a permanent coal products chemical industry cannot be created in America except by cooperation with or enlargement of the American acid and alkali manufacturing companies. The full realization of this basic consideration insures the long life of several of the large Bmerican producers in this field. These companies seem to be fully cognizant of the fact that with prices ten to fifteen times normal, it is now possible to manufacture some coal products with large profit in this country, but that with the return to normal conditions all processes must be combined with strict attention to rigid scientific methods. Experience shows that the coal products chemical industry is vital to national defense-the basis of modern warcraft and hence the real source of military strength. Munitions cannot be manufactured in sufficient quantities during the exchange of diplomatic notes prior to the inception of hostilities;' they must be produced and stored for future use long in advance of war. Under the aspect of our present international relations, none can doubt the propriety of increasing our means of defense. This can give no cause of offense nor increase the danger of a rupture. If, on the other hand, our Government should fold its arms in security and a t last be involved in war for the maintenance of its rights without adequate preparation, the responsibility would be of the gravest character. Should collision be avoided, as we all sincerely hope it may be, the expenditures in making the preparations will not be lost. One main national defense is that great coal products chemical plants be established and operated continuously a t commercial profits during peace, in order that they will be immediately available to produce unlimited ammunition during times of war. The establishment of a complete and profitable coal products industry is essential for the success of any program of national preparedness. Such an industry must, however, be founded and operated on a basis to keep abreast with scientific progress. The steps essential to this progress are as follows:' The manufacture of nitric acid from the air on a scale which will render the nation entirely independent of supplies of foreign nitrates; a reasonable tariff which will divide coal products into classes according to their degree of advancement in manufacture and will levy duties proportionate to this degree; and the provision of an antidumping clause, to prevent unfair competition instituted for the purpose of destroying American industry. I t seems to be assured that a great coal products industry will result from the present activity and interest, but the degree t o which this industry attains perfection will be proportionate to the extent with which the fundamental requirements for its profitable operations are provided. BENZOL-During the past fifteen years the production of benzol has steadily increased in the United States. In fact, there was enough benzol a t all times for the manufacture of 1
Jordan, THISJOURNAL, 8 (1916), 174.
V O ~8. , NO.6
dyes, if a coal products industry had been established by the assistance of the Federal Government and by the sustained support of the American textile industrialists. Not only were both of these factors lacking, but, until they were obliged to alter their attitude, our textile manufacturers persistently gave preference to the products of English and German manufactories instead of to corresponding dyes of American manufacture, The annual production of benzol in the United States amounted to about 3,000,ooogallons before the war; by the end of 1915, however, it had increased to about I~,OOO,OOO gallons. A heavy production (25,000,ooogallons) of American benzol is now assured,' and, when the war ends, the output from our plants will be so abundant that it may become available as an automobile motor fuel. Table I gives the locations and capacities of the light oil plants in operation in the United States. TABLEI-LIGHT OIL (50-60 PER CENT BENZOL) PL.4NTS STATES
IN
THE UNITED
Capacity Gallons PLANTS per Day Glassport, P a , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,800 Youngstown, Ohio(a), . . . . . . 4,500 Johnstown, P a , , . , , , , , , , , , , 6,000 Camden, N. J.(a) ! . . . . . . . . . 12,500 Indianapolis, Ind . . . . . . . 3,000 Gadsden, Ala.(a) . . . . . . . . . . . 2,200 Indiana Harbor, I n d . . . . . . . 4,800 Buffalo. N.Y . ... . . . . . . 6,500 Leb;mon, P a . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,600 Laclede Coke and Gas Co St. Louis,. M o . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,800 South Belthlehem, P a . , . . . . . . 6,000 Sparrows Point, M d . . , 2,500 Milwaukee, Wis. , , , , , . 2,000 Boston, Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000 ,public Iron and Steel C o . , Youngstown, Ohio. . . . . . . . . . 5,500 River Furnace Co Cleveland, Ohio(a) . . . . . . . . . . 9.500 Solvay Process C o . . . . . . . . . . . . Birmingham, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Holt, Ala., Philadelphia, Lebanon, Pa., and Syracuse.. . . . . . . . . . . . -lO,OOO(b) Toledo Furnace Co.. . . . . . . . . . Toledo, Ohio(a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.000 U. S. Steel Corporation . . . . . . . Fairfield, Ala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,000 Farrell, P a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,000 Gary, Ind., a n d . , . . . . . . . . . . . 16,000 Joliet, Ill.(a), . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,000 Woodward Iron Co.. . . . . . . . . Woodward, Ala. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000 Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. Youngstown, Ohio(a) . . . . . . . . 11,000 600 Zenith Furnace Co.. . . . . . . . . . . Duluth. Minn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (a) Not yet in operation. ( b ) Approximate estimate. COMPAAIES Allegheny Coke C o . . . . . . . . . . Briar Hill Steel Co. . , . . , , . , Cambria Steel Co.. . . . . . . . . . . Camden Coke Co., . . . . . . . . . . Citizens' Gas Co.. . . . . . . . . . . Gulf State Steel Co., , . . , , , . , . Inland Steel Co . , , , , , , , , . , Lackawanna Iron and Steel Co.
L O C A T I O S OF
CARBOLIC AcID-The production of carbolic acid has recently increased largely, mainly owing to the demand for picric acid for war purposes. With the exception that the production of the works of Thomas A . Edison-about 12,ooopounds per dayis used in the manufacture of phonographic records, the large quantities of carbolic acid which have been produced have not therefore become generally available for domestic use. However, a number of American plants have lately begun production whch can be used for other commercial purposes to the advantage of the nation, and still other sources of supply will soon be ready. An annual production of ~o,oo~,ooo lbs. is needed to supply the national demand. Carbolic acid was not produced in this country in large quantity until after the outbreak of the war, but synthetic carbolic acid was manufactured by the Semet-Solvay Company from benzol a t Syracuse, N. Y., in 1900 and the following years, in quantities up to 2,500 lbs. per day. This carbolic acid was synthesized into picric acid, which was purchased by the United States Government. NAPHTHALENE-The production of naphthalene has increased to an unprecedented extent during the past year. Before the war, the production in the United States amounted to about z,joo,ooo lbs , but it is now over 7,000,000 lbs. The normal American consumption is about 9,000,000 lbs.; but by the end of this year, the output of the American plants will undoubtedly be sufficient to insure an adequate supply for all domestic 1 About 10.000 gallons of light oil are produced daily by the distillers of coal tar; the remainder of the production comes from the light oil plants listed in Table I
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T H E J O l r R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I K G C H E M I S T R Y
needs, with the result that England and Germany shall thereafter be unable to export naphthalene to this country. ANILINE pRoDUc'rs-The five plants for the manufacture of aniline colors established in this country before the war, have, during the past fifteen months, extended their production t o the utmost capacity in keeping with safety for the investments involved. Prior to the war these establishments produced a somewhat limited quantity of coal-tar colors, the annual output being about 3,300 short tons. For the purpose of their manufacture, intermediates were largely imported, principally from Germany. These were assembled into finished dyes by the aid of a few American chemicals and by the labor of about 400 Workmen Before the war had continued a year, the output of American coal-tar colors had doubled, and a t the present time it is, a t least, three times the production before the war. This great increment involved an enormous increase in the production of coal-tar crudes, and it also induced the organization of companies b r the manufacture of intermediates, especially of aniline. The domestic supply of crudes has assumed quite large proportions. In December, 191j , the approximate monthly output, in short tons, was as follows: benzol, 7,500; toluol, 1,870; xylol, 950; naphthalene, IZ,jOo; and carbolic acid, 10,000 tons. The demand for benzol, toluol and carbolic acid to be used in the manufacture of explosives is a t present so abnormally high that there has been considerable difficulty in obtaining sufficient supplies for the manufacture of coal-tar intermediates. Nevertheless, the manufacture of these latter, especially of aniline, has suddenly grown to considerable proportions and it is constantly increasing. There are a t least twenty concerns engaged in this branch of manufacture and one is constantly learning of others which are contemplating entrance into the field. Approximately an equal number of firms is now engaged in making finished coal-tar dyestuff 5.l Synthetic indigo is being manufactured a t Midland, Mich. POTASH-During 191j , steps were finally taken to produce salts of potassium from mineral sources on a commercial scale in the United States. It is probable that Searles Lake in San Bernardino County, Cal., will be the most important American source of potash, but the war condition enabled other sources to be hastily developed.2 The alunite deposits near Marysvale, Utah, thus became the first important producers of potash in this country. The production of potassium sulfate on a commercial basis was begun a t Marysvale in October, 1915, by the Mineral Products Corporation, and this concern is contemplating doubling its present capacity. The Searles Lake potassium-bearing brine will, in the near future, be treated for the commercial production of potassium salts and borax. Work has also been begun which will probably eventuate in the commercial recovery of potassium salts from the brine of the Great Salt Lake in Utah. In their present development, practically all of the producers of potassium salts are employing war-time processes which could not compete with the German producers on a pre-war basis. However, it is possible that potash will never be so cheap as it was before the war, for it is one of those commodities on which it will be most easy for Germany to levj and collect taxes in the future. The scarcity of potash has caused a renewal of interest in the growths of kelp on the Pacific coast, regarding which much has appeared in the technical and popular press. Before this year most of the companies attempting to develop the kelp industry have been of limited capital. Recently, however, several concerns with, it is reported, adequate capital to carry their Norton, THIS JOURNAL, 8 (1916), 167 and 287, has reviewed the dyestuff situation in the United States a t the close of 1915. His report includes a list of the American dyestuff manufacturers. For example, the alkali lakes in Sheridan County, Nebraska, from which potassium salts are being produced by several companies.
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developments through to a ,successful issue, have engaged in this industry, so that a t the present time a limited amount of dried kelp is being produced and a considerable increase in this production is shortly expected. One of the prominent packing companies of Chicago has a kelp potash plant in operation a t San Diego, Cal. With the present high prick of potash, it is said that the drying of kelp is a profitable business. It is predicted that such conditions will enable the industry to get a start and to work out its numerous problems. With normal prices of potash, kelp must be worked in plants of large capacity, well designed, with a minimum of labor, and every possible economy effected. All of the profitable by-products (iodine, algin, etc.) must be saved. Laucksl is of the opinion that if, even after the war, the price remains above $35 per ton for 80 per cent muriate of potash, kelp can be worked a t a profit in a properly designed plant. Potash is now being recovered in the cement industry, and the manufacture of potassium salts from the refuse of molasses is to be begun in Colorado. BARIUM PRODUCTS-Before the war about 40,000 tons Of barite were annually shipped to the United States from Germany, and practically all of this considerable importation was used in the manufacture of lithopone, which was the only barium product made on a large scale in this country up to the time of the European conflict. It is said that there are now six manufacturers2 engaged in the production of large quantities of lithopone from barite supplied from deposits in the states of Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia and Missouri. Five American companies are also manufacturing barium compounds (chloride, carbonate, hydroxide, nitrate, and dioxide of barium3), thus giving still further production to American mines-possibly double the quantity of barite formerly imported. Stone4 has stated that with the manufacture of barium salts we have a practically new industry which will make us independent of Europe in the future. THE EFFECT O F THE WAR UPON CERTAIN ESTABLISHED INDUSTRIES
The war has had a salubrious effect on many of our wellestablished industries, It has, in fact, given rise to a general prosperity in certain lines which is most agreeable to those who live secure from the immediate calamities of it. In particular, our munition plants have been hyper-active. It may be noted here, however, that four of the largest establishments are now turning out considerable orders for the United States, in spite of the enormous foreign orders which were reported to make work for our own Government entirely out of the question. MINERAL ACIDS-There has never been any foreign competition on sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids, mainly because of the heavy transportation charges, American manufacturers being able to make these acids a t prices which render their importation unprofitable. Until about the middle of 1915, American manufacturers were entirely able to supply the needs of the country as usual; but as the war continued and the demand for munition purposes gradually increased, the requirement for acids became so urgent that the manufacturers thereof have found great difficulty in supplying them. As a consequence, many American consumers are unable to secure enough supplies to conduct their technochemical operations; or when they do get sufficient for their present business, they are qnable to obMet. Chem. Ens., 14 (1916), 308. Two of these are located in Tennessee: the Durex Chemical Works at Sweetwater and the Clinchfield Products Association a t Johnson City. The consumption of "barium binoxide" is large, for the value of the hydrogen dioxide used annually in the United States amounts to $8,000,000. Before the war, England supplied much of the barium dioxide used by the manufacturers of hydrogen dioxide. 4 THISJOURNAL, 7 (1915). 992; see also Toch, I b i d . , 993. 1
2
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tain any additional quantity for an increased business, so that the acid situation has been and is a very serious one indeed. 4 prominent manufacturer of barium products stated several months ago that he has been unable t o take contracts on barium chloride, nitrate or sulfate because it is absolutely out of the question t o obtain the necessary acids. “The people with whom we have dealt for our acids for years are simply either refusing to give us any material or are supplying us with ridiculously small lots a t enormous prices, for there are other channels which buy larger quantities and pay more than the peaceful manufacturer can afford.” War demands for sulfuric acid have stimulated the production of the great Tennessee acid plants to a maximum, copper being in reality only a by-product now. A number of important additions have been made to these and to numerous other sulfuric acid plants. The advance in both sulfuric acid and potash has put up the price of complete fertilizer and bulk acid phosphates, so that Tennessee phosphate properties have been stimulated both as to production and as to efforts to decrease metallurgical losses. Since the price of sulfuric acid began t o advance, a number of the manufacturers of fertilizers have installed acid plants a t their works, which indicates that the ruling quotations on sulfuric acid are more or less above the figure a t which they think they themselves can produce it. For instance, one company producing superphosphate in Raltimore now has an output of 300,000 tons of acid per year. Because of the large markets Tor sulfuric acid, its production from waste gases is now carried out a t copper smelters in Arizona and California, as welt as in Tennessee; and by-product acid from the sulfurous fumes of zinc smelters is being made a t ten places in Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Liquefied sulfur dioxide is now being produced by the Virginia Smelting Company, of West Norfolk, Va., and the demands of the sulfite pulp industry may give rise t o the recovery of sulfur dioxide a t other metallurgical plants. .4s indicated above, to insure the presence of our chemical self-containedness, it will be necessary to manufacture nitric acid from the air on a suitably large scale, and magnificent water power is available a t a number of accessible points for the establishment of this industry. I t was in the founding of electrochemical industries upon a grand scale a t Xiagara Falls that the United States first disclosed her latent power as a factor in the field of chemical industry; but we may derive much profit by careful study of the systematic and exhaustive manner in which the water power of Norway has been regulated, stored up, and pressed into the service of applied electrochemistry. Let us hope that industrialists will avail themselves of this opportunity and will enlist the services of our best technical talent. The Pauling process is in operation on a small scale (4 tons per day) a t Great Falls, S . C., by the Southern Electrochemical Company, and the field invites the invasion by modern industrialism. AMMONIUM SuLFaTE-The production of ammonia, calculated as ammonium sulfate, in the United States during 191j is estimated to have been Z I Z , O O O tons, an increase of 17,000 tons’upon the actual output in 1914. I t is further estimated that approximately 80 per cent of the 1915 output was from by-product coke plants, and in view of the demand for coke and coal products chemicals i t seems certain that a further substantial increase in output of ammonium sulfate in the United States must be counted on in 1916. It is predicted that the question of sulfuric acid supplies will become more acute as the demand for ammonia for munition purposes increases, and there must therefore be some shrinkage in the production of ammonium sulfate; but munition manufacturers are able to use concentrated ammonia liquor instead of ammonium sulfate, so that no handicap will result. SODIEM coMPorNDs--Xbout I , joo,ooo tons of caustic soda,
I-o!. 8 .
No. ti
soda ash, and bleaching povder are now being rnanufacturecl in the United States. For a short period after the war, American manufacturers were able to continue their supply of these products in the ordinary way; but the cessation of shipments of sodium compounds from European countries to other countries by reason of the war, eventuated in a demand for American products to supply this shortage. X large export business has thus been established by the American manufacturers and great prosperity has resulted. I n March, I 9 I j , the stocks of soda ash in this country had accumulated to such an extent as t o create a depressing sentiment among producers and to urge the most heroic measures of relief. Plans had been formulated t o undertake the development of increased outlets in South America; but before the foreign trade campaign could be initiated, the market underwent a complete change. The importance of soda ash as a war munition factor was the turning development, and with England, normally the mainstay of foreign consumption, conserving home supplies for its own exigent needs, the export demand for the American product and the stimulus to the domestic manufacture of explosives soon made heavy inroads upon the holdings in this country. The effect of these factors has been emphasized during the last few months by the increased requirements in the fields of regular consumption, namely, the soap, paper, glass, textile and petroleum industries. Confidence has been expressed that a good share of the business in soda ash, directly or incidentally due to the war, will be retained upon the restoration of peace; but there are not known t o have been undertaken any definite plans for additional equipment on the strength of enduring trade in the product on anything like the present volume. I n March, 1915, soda ash was procurable a t j 7 ’ V 2 cents per IOO Ibs., on the basis of 48 per cent; by the close of 1915, $1.85 was in effect. The developments since the first of the year have resulted in a more stirring range of prices, principally through the control of the open market by secoiid hands, who now maintain 4 to 8 cents per Ib. flat, for a j 8 per cent test. Caustic soda has attracted much interest because of the part which it plays in the manufacture of picric acid; in fact, it is principally through this medium that the reformation of soda ash has been accomplished. -4t the present time, supplies of caustic soda are reported t o be slightly freer than those of soda ash, but they are well controlled, with second hands dominating the market for prompt delivery. The question of increasing the production of caustic soda is involved in the difficulty and uncertainty of soda ash supplies. The premium on bleaching powder would prove an incentive to the production of caustic soda by the electrolytic process; but those manufacturers who employ the old method yielding straight caustic soda, are said to have the advantage of large supplies of soda ash. Other products now manufactured in this country are ferrocyanides of sodium and potassium, sodium and potassium chlorates, and sodium and potassium dichromates; and the manufacturers of these salts hold the whole American trade, for there are practically no importations from abroad. The manufacture of potassium ferrocyanide has been limited, owing t o the inability of American manufacturers to secure potassium salts from Germany; consequently, most of them are said t o be working almost exclusively on soda, and the paint manufacturers, who are large users, have attempted to produce their Prussian blue from the sodium salt instead of that of potassium. At the present time the domestic output of sodium ferrocyanide is fully engaged without beginning to satisfy requirements; but relief to the prevailing stringency is expected upon the arrival of imports. The manufacture of sodium chlorate and dichromate’ has con1 During 191j, the S a t u r a l Products Refining Company, of Jersey City, K.J., enlarged its dichromate plant a t a cost of about $50,000.
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June, 1916
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CHLURIDES UP CARBON-The manufacture of carbon tetrachloride has greatly increased in this country since the war. A t the inception of hostilities the American manufacturers were probably producing one-half of the national consumption. Since the war they have greatly enlarged their plants, so that they are said to be now supplying all of the American trade; the consumption of carbon tetrachloride is continually increasing, but those in touch with its manufacture state that even after the close of the war the whole consumption of the United States will be manufactured here. A t the present time the production of the chlorides of carbon is mainly dependent upon the availability of supplies of carbon disulfide.’ Just as soon as an economic process for chlorinating natural gas rich in methane is available, the latter will probably supplant carbon disulfide. OXALIC ACID-The manufacture of oxalic acid has been much developed in this country during the past two years. A plant was established a number of years ago a t Bradford, Pa., but up to the time of the war it constantly experienced trouble in competing with the European product because of the reduction of duty in the last tariff. However, since the war practically stopped the importation of foreign acid, the whole American consumption is now reported to he taken care of. At the present time there is a considerable shortage in supply of oxalic acid and the price is therefore high; but eventually this product will be manufactured to the full extent of the arnerican consumption and the business will be held here.*
STEEL IKDvSTRY-The steel mills are being operated on an unprecedented scale, and the great demand for ferrous products has been aptly compared to the days of activity in Pittsburgh in Civil %Tar times, when, however, the mills were fewer in nkmber than they are a t present and there was no Gary or Birmingham to increase the nation’s output of steel products. During the past year numerous lines of steel have more than doubled in value, but nation-wide buying still goes on apace. The annual report of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation for 191j-the first full year of the war-illustrates the turgid prosperity obtaining in the field of ferrous metallurgy. The net income of the year amounted to $17,762,812.61,as compared with $5,590,020.18 for 1914. The orders on hand on December 31, 1915, amounted to $17j,432,89j.19 against $46,j13,189.95 on the corresponding date in 1914. The average number of employees in the United States in 1915 was 22,064 against 15,586 in 1914. During March, 1916, the Carnegie Steel Company, with its equipment of 59 blast furnaces, was operating all but four of them. These four were being repaired, but the Company, in operating 93.38 per cent of its total furnaces, surpassed all former records. It may be mentioned here that all of the active stacks of the Carnegie Steel Company have been modernized and are now producing more than 1 2 0 per cent of their original capacity as a whole. The total number of American furnaces in blast at the close of 191j was 310, against 236 reported a t the end of the first halfyear. The production of pig-iron in 1915 (29,916,213 gross tons) a a s the largest ever reported in the United States, with the one exception of 1913; it amounted to nearly twice that of fifteen years ago. Increasing numbers of inquiries are constantly coming in from foreign buyers, mainly in Italy, for large lots of Bessemer pig-iron. At the present time a famine exists in the ferro-alloy market, owing to the fact that the war has excluded much manganese from English sources and all the German supplies. Perromanganese, which sold a t $38 a ton when the war broke out, is now being sold a t steel centers for spot shipment a t $350 a ton and on contract sale covering a certain period of delivery at $175 a ton; but willing buyers are unable to purchase much even a t these fabulous figures. Next to carbon, manganese is the most important ingredient of steel; hence, with its price increased from I . 9 cents a pound to 8.75 cents a pound, its influence on the rising cost of steel is clearly apparent. Wartime conditions have made the demand in this country for manganese ore the greatest in history, causing the searching out and the development of the limited domestic deposits as never before in the economic history of the nation. Tungsten has also advanced to high levels, and consequently its ores are in very strong demand. As high” as $90 per upit has been paid for prompt delivery of ore carrying 60 per cent oc WOS, and $110 per unit has been offered for 65 per cent concentrates, but even such high prices have apparently failed to bring out new supplies.’ Of interest is the advertisement of the largest producer as well as consumer of tungsten ores in this country, that the highest prices will be offered for all kinds of tungsteniferous minerals. Perhaps tungsten ore from South American sources may solve the problem of increasing the supply. The tremendous activity which obtains in the shipbuilding of the United States has advanced steel plate prices up 147 per cent since the war began. Then, too, carbuilders are operating their plants to capacity whenever it is possible to obtain steel. In one case, a prominent car construction company
1 A plant for the manufacture of this compound has lately been erected continues to be in Monongahela, Pa.; but E. R . Taylor, of Penn Yan, N. Y., the leading producer. 2 Stone, lac. cil.
1 Owing to the high price of tungsten during 1915, there was a scramble among prospectors in Colorado, and several minor discoveries were reported over a widely scattered area. Tu-onew mills to treat tungsten ores were erected during the year.
tinued in increasing quantity during the past year, but the production of potassium chlorate and dichromate has been limited, owing to the inability of the manufacturers thereof to secure proper quantities of potassium chloride from Germany. The sodium salts have been substituted wherever possible. Contracts for sodium dichromate are now being made on a basis of 20 to 2 2 cents, as against 4]/2 to 43/4 cents for 1915, and the producers have withdrawn all offers for forwarding delivery. The heavy expdrt trade has been the principal factor for the unusual position of the market, supplemented by the influence of chrome ore. GLASS-A wonderful prosperity obtains in the American glass industry. This is mainly attributable to the war, which shut off importations from Belgium, France and Germany, and thus permitted American manufacturers t o build up an export trade with neutral countries formerly supplied by the belligerents; but the domestic demand for glass products has also greatly increased-to such an extent, in fact, that selling agencies have withdrawn prices and the “hand” window glass plants may be operated during the coming summer months. The following tables of imports and exports are clearly indicative of the effect of the war on this industry TRADE DURING TABLE11-THE VALUE OF U. S. GLASSA N D GLASSWARE THE SEVEX
MONTHSENDING W I T H JANUARY. 1916, THE PREVIOUS YEAR
ARTICLE Bottles. d a i n Bottles; ‘ornamented Window glass.. ..... Plate glass . . . . . . . . . Optical, dutiable. . , . Optical, free.. . . . . . . All other.. . . . . . . . . .
IMPORTS 1915 1916 $529,779 $3i0,095, 157,771 366,305 583,880 121,157 93,384 394 90,546 233,585 301,130 146,045 1.108.276 353.858
TOTAL.. . . . . . . . . . $3,216,339
COMPARED WITH
EXFORTS
1915 $375,275
1916 81,036,109
393,980 242,292
1,342,870 897,793
--
, . ___
1.231.984
3.031.208 . ,
$1,239,866
$2,243,531
$6,307,980
TABLE 111-THE VALUE OF GLASSEXPOR&D U R I N G J A X U A R Y , 1916, COMP A R E D WITH J A N U A R Y , 1915 ARTICLE 1915 1916 Bottles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 47,083 $178,884 Window glass.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140,571 229,797 Plate glass.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.275 56.776 All other.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156; 761 505 668
;
ToT.4L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
_ _ _ _ _ _ $414,690
$971,125
Sj2
T H E J O U R l V A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A-VD E N G I N E E R I X C C H E i M I S T R Y
was obliged t o withdraw its bid on 4,000 steel freight cars because it was totally unable to obtain steel for them under the contract time of delivery. The war devastating Europe has also been responsible for considerable of the activity enjoyed by the manufacturers of wire products. California magnesite is being calcined for use in open-hearth steel furnaces; but a t the close of the war this will probably be discontinued and the Austrian supply will be resumed, ZINC-Perhaps the most important commercial feature in connection with zinc smelting since the commencement of the war, was the expansion of the United States Steel Corporation, through its subsidiary, t.he Edgar Zinc Company, into the zincproducing field. The new Donora, Pa., plant of this Corporation has a smelting capacity of xoo,oootons of zinc ore annually and a productive capacity of about 40,000 tons of spelter. The total production of spelter by ore smelters in 19x5 was 507,142 tons, against 370,312 tons in 1914. The production by quarters showed a steady increase, especially in the second quarter, when the important new plants of 191q-Rose Lake and Langeloth-began to strike their gait, when several of the older smelters began to start new furnaces, and when the resumption of work in several previously idle plants-particularly Caney, Dearing, and Altoona-began t o count largely in the production. In the third quarter several of the small coal smelteries of earlier times, one or two new ones, and some of the older natural gas plants began operation. TIN SMELTING IN THE UNITED STATES-The United States imports normally about 4j,ooo tons of tin annually, and of this quantity about 90 per cent is Straits tin, which is largely consumed in the manufacture of tin plate. The Straits Settlements impose a protective export duty on tin ores, thus TABLEIV-THE
PAST A N D PRESENT ~ I A R K E TVALUESOF VARIOUS STOCKS(a) Prices of Common Stock "ORDNANCE STOCKS" July 30, 1914 June 4, 1915 April 10, 1916 465 Bethlehem Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . 30 149 420 Bliss (E. W , ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 85 350 Canadian Explosives. . . . . . . . 330 88 165 825 Colts Patent Fire Arms.. ... 360 410 120 352 Du Pont (E. I.) Powder ..... 3iO 15 80 Electric Boat.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1 120 390 Hercules Powder.. . . . . . . . . . 120 172 Savage A r m s , . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,66Q 1,5iO Winchester Arms. . . . . . . . . . . 1,190
OTHER"WARSTOCKS" July 30, 1914 June 4, 1915 April 1 2 , 1916 6 1; 28"s hllis Chalmers.. . . . . . . . . . . . 44113 55 6il/4 American Car & Foundry, . , 191/r 43 60l/a American C a n . . . ... 20'14 50 i61/r American Locomotive. . . . . . . 52 104'/1 Baldwin Locomotive. , . , . , , . 41 141/? 32 92 Crucible Steel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 141 New York Air Brake.. . . . . . 60 Pressed Steel C a r . , . . . . . . . . . 34 49 51 120 129 13i Westinghouse Air Brake.. ... ( a ) It is impossible to furnish a complete list of the quotations on "chemical stocks" prior to the war, for many of these issues were traded in only through the secretaries or directors of the companies between stockholders and no official records are available. However, the following information was supplied by Messrs. Gilbert Eliott & Co., of New York, on March 20, 1916: "The tremendous rise in 'powder stocks' since the war, commenced has been,dosely paralleled by the advance in 'chemical stocks. General Chemical, for instance, has advanced from a low of 163 last year to 310 a t present. On February 1 the Company paid extra dividends of 15 per cent on the common stock. Semet-Solvay, which was selling around YO early in 1915, is now selling a t 325-350, after having increased its capitalization by a stock dividend of 100 per cent. This is equivalent to 650-700, or a sixfold increase. Dow Chemical sold around 135-140 a year ago and recently reached 6500 per share. Tbe Company declared a dividend a few days ago of 60 per cent on the common stock, payable twothirds in preferred stock and one:third in cash. Grasselli Chemical sold a t about 120 in 1913, compared wlth a present price of nearly $300. Last year the company paid a 10 per cent stock dividend. Many of the chemical stocks reaping the benefit from war prices for chemicals, which in some cases represent a 1000 per cent increase over normal, have hitherto been so closely held t h a t a comparison of prices is impracticable, However, i t is interesting to note the high prices which are a t present bid for representative stocks of this character, v i s . : Union Sulphur, 4400; National Aniline & Chemical, 490; Dow Chemical, common, 465; 'Ffeeport Texas Sulphur, 4.00; Solvay Process, 300; and Smith Chemical, 225
compelling the reduction t o metal in the country in which it is produced. Several years ago a tin smeltery was built a t Bayonne, New Jersey, but about the time it was completed this duty was imposed, so the works was never operated.
I701.8, NO. 6
b a r t from the Straits Settlements, Bolivia is the largest producer of tin ore, but Bolivian ore contains impurities which, with the established method of smelting, do not permit the production of a tin suitable for tin plate. During 191j , however, the American Smelting and Refining Company began the erection of a plant a t Perth Ahnboy,Yew Jersey, which is not only to smelt the impure ores from Bolivia and elsewhere, but is also t o refine the product by an electrolytic process.' The tin plate capacity of certain of the companies in the Pittsburgh district was increased during 191j and the early part of 1916. The Standard Tin Plate Company, 0' Canonsburg, Pa., completed I O new mills; the McKeesport Tin Plate Company, of McKeesport, Pa., built 2 0 new mills; and the Phillips Sheet and Tin Plate Company, of Weirton, W. Va., the Wheeling Skel and Iron Company, of Yorkville, Ohio, and several other companies added mills to their plants. While the price of all commodities entering into the manufacture of tin plate, including steel, pig tin, palm oil and sulfuric acid, advanced considerably during the past year, and certain of the companies have a t times experienced difficulty in securing supplies of these materials, the market is strong and the outlook is generally regarded as satisfactory. ALnfINn-The Aluminum Company of America has cnjoyed much prosperity during the past two years, and i t has in consequence greatly increased its capacity. A big water power, estimated a t 800,000 h. p., is being developed on the St. Lawrence River, and the plant of the Southern Aluminum Company a t Whitney, North Carolina, which was taken over during the past year, is being completed. The Aluminum Company of America is said t o be bending every energy to increase its output, and it is thought that when its new works are finished whatever pressure now exists for an additional supply of aluminum will be relieved. This Company is proceeding on other substantial enlargements for 1917 and the following years. While it is said that i t has not sold any aluminum for munition or for war purposes, nevertheless considerable resold aluminum has gone out of the United States for this purpose, being derived partly from aluminum transmission wires which have been replaced by those of copper. The extreme demand for aluminum from Europe arose partly from the increase in the use of ammonal, a mixture of ammonium nitrate and powdered aluminum, which is used in large quantities as an explosive by the European belligerents SNTIMONY-F~~ a number of years the consumers of this country have been accustomed t o buying Cookson's and Hallett's antimony t o the exclusion of nearly every other brand. With the outbreak of the war, however, Great Britain required all the antimony its smelters could produce; and although shipments have been reaching this country from England, they are made under special permit, difficult t o obtain. During 1915. Chinese antimony2 was introduced to the American market, and next to China, Japan now sends the largest quantities of antimony here. The high prices for antimony in 1915 induced several American concerns t o engage in the smelting of its ores. Among the most important of these are the Western Metals Company, of Los Angeles, Cal., which is managed by persons who were previously connected with Cookson & Company, Newcastle-onTyne, England; and the Merchants Finance Company, of Harbor Industrial City, Cal. Antimony smelting has also been started on the Atlantic coast, the Magnolia Metal Company having inaugurated smelting in Brooklyn during 191j . Great difficulty has been experienced in securing suitable ores. China 1 Several American companies, among them the National Lead Company, have carried out experimental work on the smelting of Bolivian ore. 2 T h e Wah Chang Mining and Smelting Company, of Changsha. China, has been especially active in introducing Chinese antimony to American consumers.
June, 1916
T H E J O U R N A L OF INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
no longer ships antimony ore, Australia has put an embargo upon its shipmeut, and competition for the South American ore has been very acute. Transportation difficulties in Alaska are the main obstacles to obtaining the supplies of antimony ore from there, although the Alaskan ore is of exceedingly good quality. During 1915, antimony mines in all parts of the Cnited States were therefore rejuvenated and several small furnaces were built. Stibnite deposits are being worked north of Neuralia, in Kern County, California, and also a t Wild Rose Spring, northeast of Trona, California. While several smelteries operated in Mexico during the past year, no attempt has been made to exploit the great deposit of jamesonite which exists there; however, this deposit will undoubtedly be drawn upon in the future. It is said that approximately 1 2 ’ ) ~ per cent of the present production of antimony is used in the manufacture of war supplies. MERCURY-The production of mercury in the Cnited States in 1915 amounted to 20,681 flasks, compared with 16,548 flasks in 1914. This production was chiefly derived from California. The mining of quicksilver was a t one time a n important industry in California and may become so again if the investor is given reasonable assurance of a tariff which will permit him to operate in fair competition with European producers after the embargo is lifted and conditions again become normal. It is said that a reasonable import duty to compensate for the different labor conditions would probably double the California production within a period of two years. This production may not be of great importance outside of California, provided the United States can always be certain of obtaining adequate supplies for Government uses in times of emergency. However, for the time being, we are cut off from foreign supplies, and the state of the market indicates that it might be a difficult matter for even the Government to accumulate any considerable reserve stock for the manufacture of fulminates and antiseptics. The production, not only of California, but of all North America, is now far short of the ordinary requirements of the United States in times of peace. These requirements are in the neighborhood of 25,000 flasks per year and seem to be increasing. During 1915 the output of California amounted to 13,916 flasks. The remainder of the small American production came from Nevada and Texas; but with the active prospecting and development which have continued in these states since the beginning of 1915, i t is probable that their total outputs will constantly increase. Then, too, the California State Mining Bureau has under investigation the concentration of and the application of flotation to cinnabar, and the results of this inquiry may serve to encourage additional development. INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS
A prevailing illusion, especially among people living outside the “big prison,” as the economist Naumann refers to the “selfcontained commercial state,” is that, when the military resources of the European contestants are exhausted, and peace is established owing to the depletion of their martial energies, war is to cease. It is conceded that as a military enterprise it will be concluded when one or the other side perceives that it is hopeless to gain anything further, and will, in consequence of this forced attitude, be desirous of making concessions for the sake of peace; but i t is certain that the great economic contest, waged with such vigor for several decades, will be resumed with renewed intensity. This world battle will be fought by trained men in laboratories, mills and commerce, just as the present war has been fought by trained men who have behind them superior capacity in shop and office. Germany, the “big prison,” is arming for this new war, which will be not merely a struggle for the existence of her economic
553
power, but rather a fight for the full development for the future of her inheritance of science, technical ability and organizing capacity. In her efforts for industrial and commercial recuperation, Germany will therefore be strenuous to find markets for her enormous capacity of chemical production. Great Britain and Russia, former great customers, will be lost to her, and other belligerent countries may close their ports to her. The inquiry therefore arises, where is Germany to market her surplus manufactures? In the past Germany has demonstrated not only a marvelous industrial efficiency but a remarkable capacity for intimate and effective commercial partnership between private initiative and government support. In 1870, her export trade amounted to only $350,000,000 per year. At the outbreak of the present war she was the possessor of a world trade of $2,500,ooo,ooo per year. A t the present time her industrial structure is intact and she has acquired possessicn of land of great natural wealth. She has already lost custom, and it seems probable that for some time the bitterness engendered by the present conflict will not make “made in Germany” a recommendation among the allied powers and their colonial possessions. To what market will Germany therefore turn under the stimulus of her necessity? One can only conclude that she will endeavor to establish herself in South America and in our own alluring domestic market. This is not, however, the entire problem. The present antagonists of Germany will, in their battle for rehabilitation, . have heavy debts to pay. In consequence whereof, they will he in every market her active rivals, and will enter into this competition not only with new and greatly intensified motives, but with increased efficiency. To quote an English statesman, “We have introduced scores of millions worth of automatic machinery which will have an enormous effect upcn our industries when the war is over.” I t follows, therefore, that the United States shall have much to face, and this realization brings us to the consideration of our industrial defenses. Economists urge that we do not base our expectations upon the present commercial tumidity, which is essentially abnormal. LMoreover, every month of the continuance of the war must enormously inflate present prices and consequently increase the risks of the inevitable reaction. It is true that in the amount of our exports we are a t present leading the world, and it is agreed on all hands that for some time after the war a great demand must continue for certain of our products, as, for example, structural materials; but there are obvious reasons. If it were not for the alimental influences of the war, we should be to-day as we were a t the beginning of 1915, limiting our enterprises and endeavoring to provide for idle workmen. I t is clear from the conditions obtaining in Europe that when the present belligerents once enter upon the struggle for industrial and commercial recuperation, they will lower their prices to a point which will enable them to procure ready markets. Their governments will urge upon the people, as an obligation of patriotism, the extension of the laboring day, the acceptance of lower wages, and the reduction of the profits of business for the purpose of securing markets for their products. We must therefore actively prepare for this coming commercial war. At this time, when expert knowledge and trained skill constitute the chief buttress of national defense, it i s our industrialists who must lead in the great work of preparation. Provided they are extended reasonable guarantee for the future and are permitted to solve in their own way the great problem of world competition on the basis of a secure home market, American manufacturers shall be able to get our industrial defense in readiness; but prompt action is required if we are to avoid the dire consequences of the coming contest. AfELLON INSTITUTg OF INDUSTRIAL RESE.4RCH
PITTSBURGH. PA.
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T H E JOUR.t-rlL O F I S D I ’ S T R I A L - 4 S D E - V G I S E E R I S G C H E M I S T R Y
HISTORY AND PRESENT METHODS OF FLUORSPAR MINING IN ILLINOIS: By CARL C. LUEDEKING
The Fluorspar mines of Illinois lie along the Ohio River in Pope and Hardin Counties. Hardin County, however, produces practically all of the fluorspar in this section, and for that matter in the United States. I n 1839 William Anderson, a settler, sinking a well near Fairview Landing, Hardin County, Illinois, discovered a bright ore which he took t o be silver, but which on analysis turned out to be lead. Another well in 1841 also encountered the ore, and lead mining on a small scale was begun. The fluorspar which occurred with the lead was a t that time valueless and was dumped out with ?he rest of the waste. Up until the early seventies the mining here was only desultory but with the discovery of the value of fluorspar as a flux in basic open hearth steel furnaces, fluorspar mining began and reports were turned in each year t o the U. S. Geological Survey. Many small surface prospects occasionally operated by farmers when prices are high dot the counties of Pope and Hardin. Four-fifths of the spar produced in the United States, however, comes from the Fairview and Rosiclare Mines of Hardin County, Illinois. The Kentucky mines across the river ship about a tenth of the total output and the remaining tenth comes from Colorado and New Mexico. Fluorspar or fluorite, chemically calcium fluoride (CaF2) consists of j~ per cent calcium and 49 per cent fluorine. It is a t times crystalline, but more often amorphous. it crystallizes in the isometric system and is slightly harder than calcite. The ore occurs in irregular lenticulated masses, usually a dull semi-opaque vrhite, but often crystals are found, usually imperfectly formed in clusters and \,arying in color from bluish, or green glasslike through various other brilliant colors t o dark purple, Associated intimately with the spar is calcite or calc spar as it is knoxn locally together with the sulfides of lead and zinc in minor quantities. Experience shows that the galena and zinc blends decrease with depth, while the calc spar increases. The method for analysis or valuation of fluorspar has been worked out by Dr. E. BidtelZof our company. The method follows with a fen- revisions made by Dr. Bidtel in 1914, and gives excellent results for industrial purposes. Qualitatire tests show the absence of barium. The carbonates are dissolved out by acetic acid and calcium fluoride also being slightly soluble in acetic acid, this solubility is reduced to a factor. The silica is determined by volatilization with hydrofluoric acid. The iron oxide is transformed into iron fluoride and together with lead and zinc is extracted by a solution of ammonium acetate containing ammonium citrate, leaving the pure calcium fluoride behind. In the Fairview-Rosiclare district there are three principal veins known, the Daisy, Blue Diggings and Rosiclare-Good Hope. The Rosiclare-Good Hope vein was the first t o be exploited and was operated as a lead mine from 1862 t o 1874 on the property now owned by the Fairview Fluorspar and Lead Company. The Blue Diggings Vein, which is parallel and about 800 it. west of the main or Rosiclare-Good Hope vein was opened up only a few years ago to any extent by the Fairview Fluorspar and Lead Company, and the showings of ore here are excellent. Very little is known of the Daisy vein, as no mining of any extent has ever taken place on it, hut i t is generally supposed to be the north extension of Blue Diggings. The general strike of the veins is approximately North and South. The vein deposits occur along fault fissure planes, and the veins are known as fault fissure, or contact veins and dip from 40’ t o vertical. : Presented at t h e 52nd Meeting of the American Chemical Society. Crbana-Champaign, April 18-21, 15!6. * T H I S J O U R N A L , 4 (19!2).
1-01. 8, S o . 6
Where the dip is more than i o o little fluorspar has been found, but where it is less than 70’ the largest bodies have been discovered. The veins vary in thickness from a mere slip to.an extreme width of 35 ft. LIining is carried on by means of vertical shafts with crosscuts driven approximately every hundred feet to the vein. The depths of these shafts, of course, vary. The main shaft a t Rosiclare mine is now 520 ft. deep. The Blue Diggings mine of the Fairview Company has been sunk to the 500 ft. level, and Mines No. I and z of the same company have each been sunk to the zoo ft. level. The method of ore recovery used in these mines is a shrinkage system, locally known as back or fill stoping. Drifts about 14 ft. high are driven in the vein and stulls placed a t a height of about 7 it. above the track rails, and poled over with lag poles, the stulls being placed about 6 ft. centers. Ore chutes are placed about every second or third opening between stulls, and the ore drawn from the stopes into ton cars which are trammed by hand or by mule to the shaft. The walls in these veins are usually good and square setting is never resorted to, being too expensive. Occasionally slabs on the wall are held in position by lags or light stulls, but the quantity of timber used is very small compared to the tonnage extracted. The methods of hoisting differ in the t\
