Agricultural Materials as Renewable Resources - American Chemical

Chapter 4

Solid Substrate Fermentation in the Production of Enzyme Complex for Improved Jute Processing 1

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B. J. B. Wood , B. L. Ghosh , and S. N . Sinha

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Downloaded by IOWA STATE UNIV on April 16, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: September 1, 1996 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1996-0647.ch004

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Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, Royal College Building, 204 George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, Scotland Indian Jute Industries Research Association, P.O. Box 16745, Calcutta 700 027, India 2

Plant residues adhering to jutefibersafter "retting" (the removal of plant tissue from around thefibersby immersion in water, which causes and promotes microbial growth on the more easily biodegradable material, but to which the tough fibers are resistant) cause delays in spinning and weaving, reduce the quality rating of the finished product, and may damage machines used in the processes. For weaving, the spun thread is sized with Tamarind Kernel Powder (TKP), which is difficult to disperse in water. Enzymes extracted from Aspergillus grown on bran by SSF will digest the plant gums which bind plant debris to the jutefibers,so easing their removal. Similarly, digesting the polysaccharides in TKP gives faster dispersion at lower temperature. Production and use of the enzymes is described, other possible applications are discussed, and areas requiring further research are identified. Jute is afiberwhose importance in the developed world has declined as a result of the plastics reVol.ution during the past 40 years. In some developing countries however it retains much of its traditional importance. This report describes using enzymes to assist in producing jute thread and in weaving the thread into cloth under a program funded by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Jute Jute (Corchoros spp.) is a family of fast-growing plants which is believed to have originated in the Middle-East. It thrives in warm, humid regions with good soil and abundant rainfall, and is therefore particularly well suited to cultivation in West Bengal, Bangladesh (the former East Bengal) and parts of Pakistan and China, where it is an important subsistence crop. Although its cultivation has a long history, jute became a crop of world economic importance during the time 0097-6156/96/0647-0046$15.00/0 © 1996 American Chemical Society

Fuller et al.; Agricultural Materials as Renewable Resources ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1996.

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Production ofEnzymes for Improved Jute Processing


when the Indian sub-continent was ruled by the British. Previously its principal uses had been in such applications as ropes, but its potential for spinning into a strong thread with many uses resulted in the development of a very substantial industry during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However, the development of cheap plastics after World War Π caused jute's eclipse as a major fiber, but there are now some signs that it may be showing recovery as new ideas about using renewable materials gain increased importance. Applications. Jute's use in rope-making has already been mentioned. String and twine for agricultural and industrial applications are another traditional application, but to the West its most important application was in the form of woven materials such as sacking, carpet backing and the base for linoleum manufacture. It has always maintained importance in the quality carpet industry, but the strength, uniformity andfreedomfromrotting which synthetic materials enjoy have greatly reduced jute's other markets in thedeveloped world, although its importance for sacking and linoleum continues in developing countries. Of recent years there has been a revival in interest in its wider uses in the West, and the reasons for this development have some lessons to offer us. Perhaps most surprising is the resurgence in the linoleum market. This was once a thriving industry to which certain towns, such as Kircaldy in Scotland, owed their prosperity. By the 1970s this industry was moribund, but about four years ago Kircaldy's only remaining linoleum maker produced its first complete list of linoleum products for about two decades. Modern linoleum is a thick, hard-wearing material able to compete on equal terms with the synthetic floor coverings which had previously displaced it, with the added attraction that the basic materials required for its manufacture are all renewable (jute, cork, linseed oil). Geotextiles. Here the revival is at least in part due to the very property of fairly easy biodégradation which is a disadvantage in other applications. Geotextiles are materials used in the construction branches of the building and civil engineering industries. One application is in temporary strengthening and stabilization of surfaces over which heavy equipment will have to move. Since jute geotextiles will rot away after a while, they are excellently suited to temporary applications as there is no need to remove them at the end of the job, thus saving a cost associated with plastic geotextiles. In hot climates, such as the Arabian Gulf, where soil temperatures may easily exceed 40°C, plastic geotextiles may stretch under heavy loading, whereas jute does not. Plastic nets applied to stabilizing banks, the sides of cuttings and other earthworks while a plant cover is established, can result in the soil panning and forming an impervious layer which disrupts drainage and deprives plant roots of deep water. This is due to iron salts and other materials lodging on the plastic. In contrast to plastics jute will rot down, adding to the humus in the soil and attracting earthworms whose activities will tend to disrupt any pan which may be forming. Newer Developments . Jute sacking is now being combined with plastic linings to give strong, reasonably priced containers. Innovative developments include jute-


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AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS AS RENEWABLE RESOURCES

reinforced plastics which can replace plywood in applications such as tea-chests, and which are also being used for other purposes in which their easy shaping has advantages, an example being separators for shipping high quality fruit (J). Over the years there have been attempts to make carpets entirely with jute, instead of using it just as the backing material onto which other textiles are woven. Recently some jute mills have installed Belgian machines which are producing attractive industrial carpeting entirely from jute, and these are winning export orders to markets such as Singapore. Thus it may be concluded that after decades of decline, jute is taking on a new lease of life, and although it may never regain the pre-eminence which it once enjoyed, it has a much brighter future than would have seemed possible a few years ago. Ranganathan (2) provides a valuable survey of innovations in its use, and the examples quoted here are drawn from this reference. Problems with Jute. These are very much bound up with the traditional processes for separating thefiberfromthe plant, particularly the "retting" stage in which plants undergo a controlled rotting while immersed in water; this topic will be covered in the next section. Jute's greatest disadvantage is its color; the characteristic brown places severe limitations on the extent to which it can be dyed. Exposure to sunlight results in the fiber undergoing further darkening. There are also technical problems associated with spinning and weaving, but these must await an outline of the processes inVol.ved in obtaining, spinning and weaving the textile. IJIRA have developed methods of separating thefiberfromother plant materials which could overcome many of these problems, but jute production is mainly an activity for subsistence farmers who are not in a position to make the necessary investment in new equipment. Traditional processing is a very polluting activity which robs water supplies of oxygen and makes the water unfit for other uses. On these grounds alone traditional "retting" should be done away with, but the economic situation makes it very unlikely that this essential change will happen, at least in the near future. Jute Production and Processing The jute industry has declined greatly from the time when the city of Dundee (Scotland) was driven to its present size and importance on the industry generated by the processing and weaving into cloth of jute imported from India. Consequently there are no recent books dealing with jute processing. The following outline of the processes employed in traditional jute processing is based on Atkinson's 1964 text (3). See also Figure 1. The jute plant is raised from seed which the farmer has saved from a previous crop. Because the farmers are so poor this is the best way to proceed from their point of view, but it does mean that there is no incentive to develop better strains of the plant, although it is difficult to escape from the view that modern breeding techniques could have a drastic effect on the properties of a plant group which has been farmed in an unchanged way for (probably) many centuries.


Production of Enzymes for Improved Jute Processing

WOOD ET AL.

HARVEST PLANTS


!

TIE IN BUNDLES

ι "RET" IN WATER

ι STRIP FIBRES FROM INNER "STICK"

ι BEAT OUT RESIDUES

ι SUN-DRY

ι TO FACTORY

ENZYME EXTRACT

iSPRAY WITH OIL/WATER EMULSION

OR

4

A "PILE" FOR 3-4 DAYS

ADD KOJI

i SPIN

WATER

ι SIZE

4

1

TAMARIND KERNEL POWDER

—

j

1

BOIL OR ENZYME

ι WEAVE

Figure 1. Jute Processing


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The plant grows with remarkable speed, and is ready for harvest after a few months, when it is up to five meters tall and is about to flower. A few plants are left to set seed, but most of them are cut down near to ground level. The plant has an interesting structure. There is a central stem (called the "stick" in the jute industry) which has a rather open texture, rather like that of balsa wood, and which would certainly not be strong enough to support the plant unaided. The stick is surrounded with a criss-crossing mesh offibers,which will be the eventual jute crop. This construction is very strong and yet pliable, enabling the plant to stand upright and withstand strong winds and tropical rain downpours without serious damage. The fibers are held together by other plant polysaccharides and are surrounded by the conductive tissues, cambium, etc. Retting. After harvest the plants are tied into bundles, weighted with stones and immersed in water. Running water is preferred because this replenishes the oxygen which is rapidly depleted by the activities of the many bacteria which develop on the plant material, and whose growth and metabolic activities are intense in the warm water. However this is a serious pollution hazard for the streams in which the plant bundles are immersed, and has been outlawed in many Western countries where similar processes are used in the production of temperate climatefibressuch as linen. This process is called "retting" and its purpose is to degrade the plant materials which bind thefibersto the stick and to each other. The jute fiber is lignocellulosic and the cellulose is of a highly crystalline type; consequently the fiber is more resistant to microbial attack than are the components which surround it. After an appropriate time the plant bundles are recovered from the water and the fibers are separated from the stick and other plant material by hand, a most laborious process of beating the bundles and drawing the fibers out from the residues. It is believed that thefibersaccumulate iron and other mineral salts from the water during retting and that these contribute to the fibers' color and also catalyse the oxidative darkening which thefibersundergo on exposure to sunlight. Preparation for Spinning. Thefibersare spread out to dry in the sun and air, and are then bundled for shipment to the mill. At the mill the bundles are separated, graded, then fed through machines which hammer them to promote the separation of the fibers from each other, and also to loosen plant debris still attached to thefibers;this debris is referred to as "bark" in the jute industry, and constitutes something of a problem during subsequent processing stages. At the lower end of the plant the fibers tend to form bundles held together by polysaccharides; these bundles, termed "root ends", are somewhat resistant to retting and to dispersion by mechanical hammering, and are also a nuisance during subsequent processing. During this mechanical pre-treatment the jute is also sprayed with a mixture of water and mineral oil to moisten and lubricate the fibers. The jute is then formed into piles and left for three to four days. No study seems to have been undertaken of events during this "piling" stage of processing, but there must be some microbial activity taking place in the warm, humid compost heaps of the piles.


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Spinning. The materialfromthe piles is then fed into machines which align the fibers and draw them out into ever thinner bundles until they are finally spun into thread. Root ends and bark particles interfere with both of these processes, resulting in stoppages, equipment jamming, thread breaking, etc. The thread may be sold as it is, but most of it is woven into cloth. Root ends and bark will disrupt this process, and finished product with excessive bark particles will be downgraded, with reduction in the price which it commands. This reduction in quality is especially important in cloth destined for the carpet industry, which demands the highest quality jute textile. Tamarind Kernel Powder and Weaving. As in other weaving processes, the thread needs to be "sized" by coating with a suitable material before weaving. Sizing is with an aqueous solution of a plant polysaccharide such as starch, which gives the thread bulk to help its handling by the weaving machines, holds moisture thus reducing the build-up of static electrical charges, and makes the thread smoother thereby helping its passage through the looms. Starch is the traditional size in most weaving, but during the Second World War Tamarind Kernel Powder (TKP) replaced it in the Indian jute industry, and has remained in use ever since. This material is obtained from tamarind seeds, themselves a by-product from production of tamarind pulp for the food industry. The seeds are parched to make the hulls brittle, then after dehulling the kernels are milled to produce the kernel powder, which is quite rich in protein and contains a most unusual polysaccharide which has a cellulose "backbone" with numerous carbohydrate side-groups attached to it. This structure makes it fairly easily dispersable in water to give a viscous solution excellent for sizing. TKP is also used as a food thickener, but was not regarded as possessing any nutritional value other than the protein associated with it. However it may be appropriate to re-evaluate the polysaccharide in the light of current interest in the so-called solublefiberas a valuable component of the human diet. Its chemistry has been the subject of several reports (4-10). Although the TKP polysaccharide is fairly easily dispersable in water as compared with cellulose, it does take rather a long time to obtain a suitable dispersion by the conventional method, which inVol.ves passing steam into a mixture of TKP and water through a steam lance. As will be shown subsequently, enzyme extracts originally devised for processing the jute fibers have also found application in shortening and simplifying the production of aqueous TKP dispersion. Application of Enzymes Groups at DIRA (77) and in Bangladesh (72) have developed methods for producing and applying enzymes in jute processing. As will be seen, these methods claim to ease processing, upgrade thefiberquality and reduce the number of stoppages during spinning and weaving. Somewhat similar claims have been


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made for purely chemical additions during processing, and we shall attempt to reconcile these two sets of claims. The rationale underlying the application of enzymes in processing the jute fibers is that of aiding dispersion of the plant gums which bind bark tofibersand bind fibers together into root ends. Additionally, mills using the process report thatfiberwhich has been so treated is "brighter" than otherwise comparable jute which has not received the enzyme treatment. This latter claim is difficult to quantify in the absence of objective standards for jute's appearance, or indeed any clear definition as to the meaning of "brightness" in this context, although this term is widely used in the industry, and would be readily understood by anyone working in it. Nevertheless, this is an opinion expressed independently by a number of craftsmen with lifetime experience of jute, and on occasion, even the author with no experience of jute (BJBW) has been able to detect a difference in appearance between conventional and enzyme-treated fibers. The term "biosoftening" is not entirely satisfactory as a description of the full range of functions claimed for the enzyme complex, but it has become established within DIRA, who also promote its use in the jute industry, and so will be employed here. Biosoftening. In outline, the enzyme biosoftening process inVol.ves producing an enzyme complex by growing a fungus (Aspergillus terreus, as a strain isolated at IJIRA, is currently employed) on wheat bran as a solid substrate fermentation (conveniently described by the Japanese term "koji"). The mold-covered bran can be applied directly, or enzymes can be extracted with water and this extract, as obtained or after concentration, used. In either case the enzyme-containing material is mixed with the jute immediately prior to the "piling" process. Aqueous extracts can be applied with the water/oil dispersion which is sprayed onto the jute during the preparatory mechanical treatment, or sprayed on during the preparation of the piles. If dried koji is being used it is sprinkled onto the piles as each layer of jute is added. The process favored by the chemists at DIRA is to spray a dilute solution of urea onto the jute during piling. Their rationale for this, that the urea causes dispersion of the polysaccharide gums, is unacceptable at the very low urea concentrations which they employ. A more reasonable explanation is that the urea, by supplying readily assimilated nitrogen, will enhance microbial growth in the piled fiber, which will probably contain very little of this essential nutrient after retting, which would be expected to remove much or all of the (probably limited) nitrogen in the freshly harvested jute plants. Unfortunately no microbiological studies of the piling process have been reported. It can reasonably be argued that the koji and extracts from it would also supply nutrients to any microbes active in the piles, and so a similar logic may be applied in assessing the true biochemical basis for the enzyme biosoftening process. On the other hand the enzyme explanation for the actions exerted by koji extract in aiding dispersion of TKP would seem to be the only reasonable one,


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given the short time period used and the probability that the initial microbial load of the TKP will be low. Enzyme Production


The strain of Aspergillus terreus which was isolated by IJIRA staff is maintained as a pure culture. From this stock culture subcultures are prepared as inocula for scale-up. Cultures on sterile wheat bran are incubated under controlled conditions in the laboratory until growth is complete and extensive sporulation has occurred. This koji is then dried and stored until required as an inoculum for enzyme production (Figure 2). "In-house" Production at Mills . Some jute mills prefer to produce their own koji. This may meet the whole or part of their requirement for enzyme. They may maintain their own inoculum line or use dried koji from IJIRA. Despite the fact that mills could not possibly afford to employ a microbiologist each, the standard achieved by the people producing koji at mills is remarkably high. Typically such a producer is one of the mill's engineers who has offered to take on the task of koji production and has received only the most basic training in sterile technique. They seem to enjoy the unusual challenge, and bring some unexpected insights to the task. Koji vessels used in the mills are two-part metal canisters comprising a base and a rather closely fitting lid. One producer had noticed that loose-fitting lids gave better growth of the mold, and when this was explained to him in terms of oxygen transfer rates, he quickly devised a plan to modify all his koji vessels. The conditions under which bran preparation and sterilization, inoculation, incubation and harvest are carried out are very primitive if judged by the standards appropriate to the microbiological industry as a whole, but are perfectly adequate as a response to the particular requirements which are being addressed. The high ambient temperature and humidity normally found in Jute producing areas mean that there is no real need for special provision by way of incubators; there is normally steam available from the mill for sterilization, and while some of the pressure vessels would not meet safety standards applied in industrialised countries, no significant accidents have been recorded at mills producing their own koji. When fungal growth is complete the koji is air-dried and stored until required. The mill workers will either extract enzymes with water and use this in piling or use the dried koji directly, spraying extra water onto the piles as they are formed. Production at the IJIRA facility. United Nations Industrial Development Organization funding has enabled IJIRA to construct a specially designed koji factory at a jute mill on the outskirts of Calcutta. This factory comprises facilities for storing bran and dried koji, an autoclave, aribbonmixer, incubation rooms, a cross-flow drier, small extraction towers and a Millipore filter press to concentrate the enzyme extract. Laboratory facilities aid in standardising processes and products (73-75 ).


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The operation is on a larger scale than at any of the mills and so can operate under the supervision of a qualified microbiologist assisted by skilled and semi-skilled workers. It supplies mills with dry koji, aqueous extract or concentrated aqueous extract as specified by the customer. One advantage of preparing extract "in house" is that the extracted bran can be re-used as substrate for further mold growth. There seems to be an optimum mixture of new and re-used bran for enzyme production. The flour milling plantfromwhich the bran comes is rather old and badly worn, and the bran contains more associated endosperm than is desirable. Therefore it seems reasonable to suggest that used bran has had the more easily utilised starch, etc, removed, so that the mold which grows on it the second time around is forced to expend more effort on producing enzymes to hydrolyzse the less easily digested polysaccharides present in the bran, and these are the types of polysaccharideswhich need to be dispersed for improved jute processing. On the other hand if recycled bran is used without supplementation with somefreshbran then fungal growth is poor, although no work has been done to determine if this results entirelyfromnutrient depletion or corresponds in some measure to inhibitor production by the growing or sporulating mold which colonised the branfirsttime around. Application of Enzyme Preparation As the program develops it is intended that the enzyme extracts will be standardized with respect to the concentrations of the enzymes principally inVol.ved in biosoftening, but at present application rates for the koji or extract tend to be rather ad hoc . A particular advantage of enzyme biosoftening treatment is that it does not inVol.ve any significant alteration or disruption to the operating routines followed in the mill where raw jute is being processed. In TKP dispersion preparation there is a considerable saving in time, energy and labour if enzyme extract is used. TKP typically has a composition comprising protein 16.7%, carbohydrate 63.4%, fiber 5.4%, sugars 3.1%, oil 6.9%, tannins, etc. 1.7%, ash 2.7%, dry weight basis, with the powder as supplied typically containing about 10% moisture. As mentioned earlier the principal component is a polysaccharide, or series of related polysaccharides, basically a cellulose-like backbone of beta 1-4 linked glucose molecules with pentose and other sugars forming short side-chains. This polysaccharide is thought to be the principal sizing agent, but it is believed that the protein present in the extract can act to bind jute fibers together. The experience of mills is that, when TKP dispersions produced with koji extract are in use, there is a considerable reduction in thefrequencywith which spinning and weaving are halted due to thread breakage, giving an overall production increase around 4%. This increase in production efficiency is attributed to the protein component of the TKP, and it is argued that the much milder conditions used to enzymically disperse the TKP in water, plus perhaps some modifications in the protein(s) structure resulting from the activity of proteases present in the koji, condition the protein to act as a glue for the fibers, although it is not clear that


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Production ofEnzymes for Improved Jute Processing

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these suggestions have a firm scientific basis, and there is a need for a good scientific study of the problem. IJIRA recommends that the mixture of TKP, water and enzyme extract be incubated for 15 to 20 minutes at 40 to 50°C, then the mixture is heated to 70°C to denature the enzyme and also to complete dispersion of the TKP in water. While the enzyme composition of the extract from A. terraeus has not been exhaustively examined, the principal activities believed to be present are listed in Table L Sinha et al. (16 ) report evidence that the mold produces a substance which inhibits cellulase attack on intact cellulose, but has no effect on hydrolysis of partly degraded cellulose. They demonstrated that the dialysed extracts from the koji will degrade intact cellulose, and they also showed that the intact extract will selectively inhibit the degradation of intact cellulose (the so-called cotton cellulase activity) by other enzyme systems. The active component seems to be a simple, thermostable molecule, and it is unfortunate that no effort has been made to establish its identity unequivocally, as this property (which their work indicates is not confined to action on A. terraeus cellulase) could have practical use in a number of applications and could also yield interesting information on the binding of enzyme and substrate. There is also scope for further work on identifying the components of the cellulase complex which are actually present in the A. terraeus extracts. Future Developments While DIRA's wish to continue to work with the A. terraeus which has served them so well to date in this project is understandable, it must be acknowledged that it is very improbable that extract from a single organism represents the best possible balance of enzymes for either of the tasks for which the enzyme preparation is employed. A detailed study of the contributions made by each of the enzymes present in the extract, buttressed by a more complete understanding of the polysaccharides principally responsible for the problems caused by bark and root ends, is clearly desirable and should provide aframeworkfor studies leading to a standardised mixture of enzymes giving enhanced performance in biosoftening. A second blend should optimise TKP dispersion. The need to identify the agent protecting undegraded cellulose against cellulase has been noted above, but bears repetition here because of its importance. If jute is to realize its full economic potential in modern markets, the problems associated with its color and the darkening which occurs on exposure to sunlight need to be resolved. Is tannase present in the enzyme complex? This could account for some of the beneficial effects on jute colorfromthe biosoftening treatment. In the longer term it is clearly very desirable to get away from traditional retting with its serious polluting effects on the water in which it is done, and this measure is also expected to reduce the color and darkening problems, as noted above. It may also be thatfiberswhich have not undergone retting may be stronger than their retted counterparts. Enzymatic cleaning will surely be essential


AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS AS RENEWABLE RESOURCES WHEAT BRAN -ADD WATER MIX

SPREAD IN T R A Y S

AUTOCLAVE


COOL

I N O C U L A T E WITH * ~ P U R E C U L T U R E FROM LABORATORY

Aspergillus terreus RETURN T O TRAYS

I

I N CCtjBA UBATE ~

-DjlYT O MILLS • E X T R A C T WITH WATER APPLY T O JUTE IN PILES 4-

L

CONCENTRATE FOR DISTRIBUTION

-DILUTE AT T H E MILL,

Figure 2. Enzyme production for the jute industry

Table I. Enzymes present in Aspergillus terreus Koji FOR JUTE PROCESSING PECTINASES HEMI-CELLULASES β-GLUCANASES CELLULASE COMPLEX INHIBITOR OF " C O T T O N C E L L U L A S E " A C T I V I T Y

FOR TKP PROCESSING β-GLUCANASES PROTEINASES


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Production of Enzymes for Improved Jute

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in processingfiberwhich has ben mechanically strippedfromfreshlyharvested jute plants, thus increasing the importance of the IJIRA enzyme production program.


In the longer term genetic engineering of the molds used for enzyme production may prove to be the best way to obtain an optimised and highly active enzyme blend, but in the shorter term the easiest way forward will probably be to grow mold strains selected from cultivars already available in such places as the Central Food Technological Research Institute in Mysore, and then blend extracts from them into balanced enzyme mixtures appropriate for each application. Microbiology of Piling. The events which occur during the "piling" stage of jute processing remain unknown, but must surely inVol.ve considerable microbial activity. Research leading to accurate knowledge of the microbes concerned and any succession which they exhibit, could suggest ways of beneficially controlling the process and promoting or enhancing the growth of useful species, possibly even leading to deliberate inoculation with selected organisms. Is it possible that a combination of enzyme extract treatment in association with measures to enhance the growth of selected microorganisms could be more beneficial than either treatment alone? The suggestion that the mold extract may have effects other than those attributable to the enzymes which it contains receives some support from a rather unexpected place, studies on animal nutrition. Newbold et al. (77 ) report that adding Aspergillus oryzae fermentation extract to the diet of a ruminant animal, specifically the sheep, increased the numbers of cellulolytic (by 94%) and total (by 30%) bacteria in the animals' rumens, while leaving the numbers of fungi and protozoa unchanged. The activity was not destroyed by autoclaving the fungal extract prior to feeding it to the sheep, so the results cannot be accounted for by enzyme activities in the extract, even though A. oryzae is valued in food fermentation for its very active production of extracellular enzymes. The work followed from an observation that including the extract in the sheeps' diet produced increases in milk yield and weight gain, demonstrating that the increase in micrbial counts was a real effect with influence on the rumen's performance, and not just a statistical phenomenon. Advantages of SSF. In a developing country such as India the advantages of Solid Substrate Fermentation over Stirred Tank Reactor processes are considerable. SSF requires smaller investment in plant and can be conducted with a less skilled labour force. The product can be stabilized pending use or further processing by simply drying it. Product extraction gives a concentrated extract and a moist solid residue rather than the largeVol.umesof highly polluting liquid which remain after extractionfroma liquid fermentation. Even in developed areas such as Europe and North America there is a revival of interest in SSF; India and Japan, with their considerable experience in SSF, are in a strong position to capitalise on the knowledge thus gained. An example of this is the text edited by Pandey {18 ) reporting the proceedings of a very useful conference on applications of SSF held in Trivandrum in 1994. This offers an overview of the current resurgence of interest in SSF and the reasons why it is particularly attractive for



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developing economies. It then reviews methods for conducting and monitoring SSF; production of food, feed and fuel by SSF; enzyme production for the food, leather, textile and other industries;finallythere is a mixture of minor products and consideration of matters such as safety aspects in SSF operation. In addition, the Indian leather industry's Central Leather Research Institute in Madras is developing SSF enzyme production for dehairing and bateing hides. In conclusion, the authors believe that this program demonstrates that SSF has a part to play in the modem world, and that if the difficult lessons taught by this experience can be properly assimilated and applied, SSF has much to offer other agro-technological industries in the developing and even the developed countries of the world. Acknowledgments We are grateful to the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation for their support of the jute biosoftening project, and for their consenting to our publishing this report of the work. We thank IJIRA's Director for permission to publish this paper. We thank Mr Edmund P. Phillips, a student with BJBW, for assistance with surveying the literature on the composition of tamarind kernel powder. We thank Forbo-Nairn Ltd, Kircaldy, Fife, Scotland for information and illustrative material on the production of linoleum. Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

IJIRA Technical Note (undated). Poly-Jute Packaging for Practical Solutions. Ranganathan, S.R. Statement on Status of Indian Jute Diversified Products. IJIRA, Calcutta, India, 1990. Atkinson, R.R. Jute; Fibre to Yarn. Temple Press Books: London, England, 1964, p p 212. Ghose, T.P.; Krishna, S. Current Science, 1945, 14, 299-300. Khan, N.A.; Mukherjee, B.D. Chem. & Ind. 1959, 1413-1414. Kooiman, P. Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas 1961, 80, 849-865. Savur, G.R. J. Chem. Soc. 1956, 2600-2603 Savur, G.R. Chem. & Ind. 1956, 212-214. Srivastava, H.C.; Singh, P.P. Carb. Res. 1967, 4, 326-346. White, E.V.; Rao, P.S. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 1953, 75, 2617-2619. IJIRA Technical Note, Enzyme unlocks the Inherent Potential of T.K.P. by Biomodification, 1988. Anon. Jute (Newsletter of the International Jute Organisation, Dhaka, Bangladesh) 1991, 6(1), 6. Wood, B.J.B. Technical Report: Biosoftening of Jute (First mission). United Nations Industrial Development Organisation:Vienna, Austria, 1990. Fuller et al.; Agricultural Materials as Renewable Resources ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1996.

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16. 17. Downloaded by IOWA STATE UNIV on April 16, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: September 1, 1996 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1996-0647.ch004

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Wood, B.J.B. Technical Report: Biosoftening of Jute (Second mission). United Nations Industrial Development Organisation:Vienna, Austria, 1990. Wood, B.J.B. Technical Report: Biosoftening of Jute (Third mission). United Nations Industrial Development Organisation:Vienna, Austria, 1992. Sinha, S.N.; Ghosh, B.L.; Ghose, S.N. Can. J. Microbiol. 1982, 27, 1334-1340. Newbold, C.J.; Brock, R.; Wallace, R.J. Lett. in App. Microbiol. 1992, 15, 109-112. Pandey, Α., Ed.; Solid State Fermentation . Wiley Eastern Ltd, New Age International Publishers: New Delhi & London; 1994.


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