In the Classroom
An Interactive Environmental Science Course for Education Science Majors S. K. Lunsford* Department of Chemistry, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435; *
[email protected] William Slattery Geological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH 45435
Students preparing to become teachers at the primary and secondary level must fulfill a chemistry, biology, geology, and physics course requirement as part of their undergraduate program. An interactive environmental science course was designed to provide a set of learning experiences that connect chemistry, geology, biology, physics, and math with their future careers as teachers. The environment deals with many factors contributing to the quality of life, such as the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the protective shelter of the atmosphere. The course described in this article is intended for science education majors, is taught in a field-experience manner with integrated lab experiences, and is limited to 24 students. Students work in pairs to collect data from the environment and evaluate the samples in the laboratory. The National Science Education Standards (NSES) advocate cooperative and inquiry-based classroom activities to better prepare today’s education science majors (1–5). Undergraduate science education majors who were trained through a traditional lecture program are unfamiliar with the inquiry-based approach. The NSES states, “Professional development for teachers of science requires essential science content through the perspectives and methods of inquiry…”. To meet this goal we developed the Environmental Modular Science (EMS) course for students preparing to become teachers to achieve the objectives the NSES. Two main instruments are used to assess the EMS course: pre- and post-tests on content knowledge, and a questionnaire on teaching beliefs. The goals of the EMS course are: • To increase education science majors’ content knowledge through inquiry-based interdisciplinary science field and lab investigations. • To model age-appropriate pedagogical methods of instruction through field and laboratory experiences and peer interactions. • To assist education science majors in developing inquiry-based integrated-science investigations aligned with the national and state standards. • To strengthen education science majors’ use of technology by use of Internet and Web conferencing. • To develop lessons and discuss content and pedagogical practices in the classroom by use of Internet and Web conferencing.
To achieve these goals, the EMS course is divided into three phases: phase I consists of fieldwork and field trips, phase II consists of data evaluation in the laboratory, and phase III consists of Internet course and interactive Web conferencing. www.JCE.DivCHED.org
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Phases of the EMS Course The EMS is divided into three phases. In phase I, students visited an oceanic environmental laboratory in Sandy Hook, New Jersey, followed by a trip to an Appalachian environment in West Virginia and Virginia. Each of these field trips had 36 contact hours, for a total of 72 contact hours. The students worked in pairs during the field trips and performed the following assays: pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, salinity, alkalinity, temperature, and the concentration of phosphates, nitrates, and heavy metals in ocean, rivers, lakes, and streams. In the field, students also collected samples of rocks, soil, and fossils (6–7).
The Modern Ocean Fieldwork (Phase I) The investigations at Sandy Hook focused on the interplay between the physical and biological factors of the seashore environments. The students profiled a section of the beach at Sandy Hook (dunes, backshore, foreshore, and nearshore); collected samples of shells, sand, and soil; calculated the speed of the shore current; and collected ocean water samples for analysis in the field. These data were then used in the lab experience portion of phase II. The students were required to investigate sedimentary layers of sand on the beach and to take digital photographs so they could compare the sediment found in modern beach environments with the sedimentary rock samples found in the trip to West Virginia and Virginia, which provides the samples of the ancient ocean artifacts and data. Students collected water samples drawn from different depths of the ocean, an estuary, and river (Table 1).1 Sediments were collected and a trawl was utilized at different depths of the ocean to reveal the various animals living in each zone. The connection between modern and ancient ocean sea levels was made by a fossil stop 14 kilometers inland. Samples of shark teeth, barracuda jaws, crab carapaces, and Mosasaur teeth from sediments of the late Cretaceous period, the twilight of the age of dinosaurs, were found. The Ancient Ocean Fieldwork (Phase I) The Appalachian Mountains field trip provided the igneous and sedimentary rocks that make up the Blue Ridge Mountains. Samples of igneous and metamorphic rocks were photographed for comparison to the modern ocean studied. These field experiences helped to instill the understanding that the chemical composition of metamorphic rocks leads to the essential clues to the geologic history of an area. The physical and biological natures of sedimentary rocks were studied. Limestone, sandstone, shale, and conglomerates were investigated to gather clues of deposition, chemi-
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In the Classroom Table 1. Student Data for Field Analysis of Estuary Water at Sandy Hook Parameter Depth/m
Data 0.7
3.5
22.9
22.6
pH
7.8
7.6
Dissolved Oxygen/(mg/L)
7.13
Temperature/⬚C
7.1
9.8
12.8
15.9
19.0
22.43
22.26
22.18
22.19
22.21
7.6
7.56
7.56
7.56
7.64
5.93
4.12
4.07
4.12
4.12
4.57
Salinity (ppt)
26.4
26.65
26.93
22.04
22.04
26.96
27.05
Turbidity (NTU)
63.0
64.1
68.1
69.1
69.1
69.2
69.0
Nitrates (ppm)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Phosphates (ppm)
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
Alkalinity (ppm)
80
85
90
90
100
120
120
Hardness (ppm)
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
NOTE: NTU are nephelometric turbidity units.
cal composition, and fossils. On the last day of the field trip fossils were collected from the ancient nearshore and beach environments for comparison with similar environments seen on the modern ocean field trip. As illustrated in Table 2, the students’ results for the river water sampling in Radford, Virginia were drastically different from the results in Table 1, brackish water or estuary water at Sandy Hook, New Jersey. The students were required to explain the significant difference in the pH and the effect of coral on life and the environment at Sandy Hook as compared to the water near the coal mines in Radford.
Data Evaluation and Laboratory Experience (Phase II) A four-day laboratory exercise compared the modern ocean samples and Appalachian Mountain samples to show how the earth has changed with time. These inquiry-based experiences during the field trips and lab allowed the students to discover that scientific evidence is based on empirical observations. Students also discovered that processes operating today form the knowledge base that scientists use to infer past environments and physical processes and that past events continue to determine present conditions. Inquiry-based investigations of the materials brought back from the field trips were conducted. The lab experiences integrated the different sciences to analyze the various samples collected. The students were required to investigate the similarities and differences among the water, sediment, rock, and fossil samples collected. Analysis of anion and cation concentrations in water samples led to discussions regarding changes in dissolved oxygen and other parameters in collected water samples through time, chemical weathering, the water cycle, and ocean “salinity”. In addition, students compared the composition of sands versus the composition of the source rocks and predator–prey relationships among mollusks, both modern and fossil. Internet and Web Conferencing (Phase III) Phase III is an Internet experience that accounts for 24 contact hours. The Internet experience was asynchronous, that is, students did not have to be online at the same time, but there were weekly deadlines for interaction. The course was embedded within WebCT.2 The followup component enhanced the students’ understanding of content and pedagogy 234
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by providing them with an online cooperative learning experience. The Internet experience was implemented to assist in the development of classroom applications utilizing Internet resources and scientific databases, utilizing peer interaction to enhance the construction of these classroom applications, and guiding the student in the use of rubrics and authentic K–12 classroom assessments. During week one the students were to become familiar with the WebCT software and the course layout, visit online reading assignments and hyperlinks, complete precourse surveys and tests, and meet each other online to form groups that would develop an interdisciplinary study. During week two the groups of students met to do research and produced a study of dinosaur extinction and the “impact” of the bolide collision with planet earth on the lithosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere. In week three, the students used the knowledge and experience gained in the previous week to develop individual classroom activities for their own student-teaching classrooms. These activities were posted and reviewed by peers and faculty.
Continuation of Phase III Phase III of the EMS course makes certain that its content and pedagogical practices were carried into the studentteaching classroom. Through the use of interactive Web
Table 2. Student Data for Field Analysis of River Water at Radford Parameter
Data
Depth/m
0
Temperature/⬚C
25.2
pH
2.32
Dissolved Oxygen/(mg/L)
4.5
Salinity (ppt) Turbidity (NTU)
5.8 15.5
Nitrates (ppm)
0.0
Phosphates (ppm)
1.0
Alkalinity (ppm)
40
Hardness (ppm)
200
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In the Classroom
conferences the students were able to communicate and collaborate with other students and science professors once every two months. There were a total of four Web conferences and each Web conference lasted for two hours. Each conference built on the experiences from phase I and II. The students discussed the development of their inquiry-based science activities developed from phase I, II, and part of phase III. An example of an integrated biology and chemistry inquiry-based activities developed by a student was discussed during the interactive Web conferencing: “What is the ideal pH for your garden soil to grow different types of plants?” During this last phase the students provided support for one another on various topics from assessment to classroom management of their developed lessons. Lessons incorporated math graphing, geology and beach profiling, biology (plant life, clams, snails), and chemistry of the water. An example of a lesson discussed over Web conferencing had the following agenda: • A beach profile report.
Table 3. Results from Questionnaires about Teaching Science 1. I teach science by inquiry. Questionnaire
Agree
Disagree
Pre
60
40
0
Post
95
5
0
2. I enjoy teaching science.
• One-page report explaining the results of the measurement of the clam predated by the moon snails. • One-page report explaining the water chemistry and the sampling plan utilized to provide detailed information on the water quality.
Results Pretests and posttests were given to assess the knowledge of the integrated sciences gained by the students who participated in the EMS course (8–9). The average pre-test score was 52.20% and the average post-test score was 83.16%, resulting in a normalized gain of 0.65 over four courses with a total of 96 students.3 The resulting 30.96% increase in percentage points from the pre- and post-test results of the 96 students are consistent with the noted trend of improved student understandings with increased interactive science courses (10). In addition to the pre- and post-tests, the students in the EMS course were given a questionnaire about their views on science instruction and teacher preparation. An analysis of this survey suggests a change in the students’ opinions about science instruction that reflects a belief in inquiry-based instruction. The results of the questionnaire are shown in Table 3. In general the students’ comments regarding the interactive course were positive. The students were asked to keep a journal during their field experiences and respond each day about their experiences. Responses included comments such as “I really enjoyed working outdoors and if I could I would work outdoors all the time. However working outside is more hassle in terms of take down and set up equipment at each site.” When questioning students about the difficulties in collecting and analyzing samples in the field, most students felt that the titration was difficult to handle in the mountains of Virginia but got accustomed to handling it. With the time www.JCE.DivCHED.org
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Pre
50
50
0
Post
98
2
0
3. The teacher should consistently use activities that require students to do original thinking. Pre
93
7
0
Post
98
2
0
4. Students should never leave science class confused or stuck. Pre
30
50
20
Post
15
85
0
5. Good science teachers show students the correct way to answer questions on which they will be tested.
• Pie charts of all beach sand sieved. • One-page report to explain grain-size differences between foreshore, nearshore, backshore, and dunes and how the different size of grains relates to the solubility of grains in water?
No Opinion
Pre
35
55
10
Post
15
85
0
constraints and the desire to make the experience last in the field for the entire day, it was best to offer the EMS course field experiences during the summer. The EMS course is effective in developing an appreciation for science process skills and inquiry-based learning. All the participating students in the EMS course have modified their lesson plans in an inquiry-based manner. The three phases of the EMS course build content knowledge in the various sciences and address the pedagogical understanding needed to meet NSES standards (5, 11). Acknowledgment Eisenhower Professional Development Program granted financial support for this program. Notes 1. A research vessel was provided by the Ocean Institute at Sandy Hook. 2. WebCT is a user-friendly course management software package. The course was housed on the Wisdom server, a server dedicated only to Internet course delivery. Both the WebCT course management software and Wisdom server are accessible through Mac and PC platforms, and all browser software. 3. The normalized gain was calculated by: (posttest − pretest)兾(100 − pretest)
Literature Cited 1. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Benchmarks for Science Literacy; Oxford University Press: New York, 1993. 2. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Science for All Americans; Oxford University Press: New York, 1994.
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In the Classroom 3. National Research Council. Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards, A Guide for Teaching and Learning; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, 2000. 4. National Research Council. National Science Education Standards; National Academy Press: Washington, DC, 2001. 5. Benlow, A.; Malby, C. Science Education, An Investigation Approach; Wadsworth Group: Stamford, CT, 2002. 6. Schwertmann, U. Relations between Iron Oxides, Soil Color and Soil Formation. In Soil Color; Bigham, J. M., Ciolkosz, E. J., Eds.; SSSA Special Publication No. 31. Soil Science So-
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ciety of America, Inc.: Madison, WI, 1993. 7. Hupper, M. L.; Monte, D.; Scheifele, P. Science Teacher 2000, 67, 44–47. 8. Kober, N. What We Know About Science Teaching and Learning; Council for Educational Development and Research: Washington, DC, 1991. 9. Stiggins, R. J. Phi Delta Kappan 1988, 69, 363–368. 10. Hake, R. R. Am. J. Phys. 1993, 66, 64–74. 11. Camacho-Zapata, R.; Garriga, J. L. J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 1586–1589.
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