In the Classroom
Art and Chemistry: Designing a Study-Abroad Course Joanne A. Smieja* and Gemma D. D'Ambruoso Department of Chemistry, Gonzaga University, Spokane, Washington 99258 *
[email protected] Robert M. Richman Department of Science, Mount St. Mary's University, Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727
Have you ever wanted to teach a chemistry class abroad? Many academic institutions are currently promoting studyabroad experiences, convinced that these experiences benefit their students and increase the marketability of their programs. You may agree study-abroad experiences are valuable, enabling students to gain a global perspective, an essential attribute for today's workforce. You may want to support your institution's efforts to provide these experiences. As a chemist, you know chemistry is the study of matter, and matter is everywhere, but you may be unsure how to use your knowledge of chemistry to develop a class for Florence, London, Paris, Tokyo, or another foreign city. This paper describes one possible approach. Chemistry is profoundly relevant to the visual arts. Artists use all types of matter: colorants, binders, plastics, fabrics, metals, ceramics, polymers, photoactive reagents, and so forth. The use of these materials provides an excellent framework for teaching fundamental chemistry concepts, including properties of matter, types of bonding, periodic trends, and interaction of matter with light. In addition, art conservation and restoration are intriguing applications of chemistry. Occasionally, the deterioration of a work of art may be due to a physical process, but more often chemical reactions such as acid-base, redox, or photochemical reactions are the culprits. Prior to restoration, analytical techniques such as ultraviolet spectroscopy, infrared reflectography, and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy are used to analyze a work of art. With all of these rich connections between chemistry, chemical techniques, and art, chemists from a variety of backgrounds including the traditional divisions of inorganic, organic, analytical, physical, and polymer chemistry possess the necessary expertise to teach an introductory course relating chemistry to art. Chemistry faculty often find themselves arguing to administrators and other faculty that, expensive though it may be, a laboratory component is essential to a particular course. Nowhere is this true more than in an art and chemistry course, where hands-on experience with paints, pigments, frescos, photography, and more provides an engaging dimension of learning to reinforce class work. But with study-abroad courses, and perhaps some domestic courses as well, laboratory facilities may not be available. In such cases, an art and chemistry course can offer alternative and equally engaging mechanisms to reinforce class work in the form of first-hand observation of original works of art, restoration projects, and art conservation laboratories set in the context of the local culture. This makes such a course an effective and attractive way to teach chemistry to a wide audience in any art-rich setting. Publications in this Journal (1-7) and elsewhere (8, 9) have described courses relating art and chemistry. Curricular material has been developed for middle school students (4, 5), high school
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students (8), and college students (1, 2, 7, 9). To date, only Uffelman's publication has described the development and implementation of curricular material combining art and chemistry that includes a study-abroad experience (7). Uffelman's paper describes two linked three-credit courses for nonscience majors that include a study-abroad experience in The Netherlands. The online version of Uffelman's paper includes an extensive list of relevant references. Herein, we describe additional study-abroad courses. Since 2006, we have each taught an art and chemistry course in Italy. Our course material, available as online supporting information, may be useful to teach a course in Italy or as a framework to develop an art and chemistry course for another location. Program Descriptions and Faculty Preparation Gonzaga University (GU) and Mount Saint Mary University (MSMU) have numerous study-abroad programs. At GU, the highest enrollment study-abroad program is the Gonzaga-inFlorence (GIF) program, established in 1963 as a junior year, semester, or summer program. The summer GIF program recently expanded its course offerings to include science courses. MSMU offers four semester-abroad programs, three in affiliation with the American Institute for Foreign Study. The most popular is the program in Florence, which is offered spring semesters of even-numbered years. Faculty at GU and MSMU are encouraged to create courses relevant to the location of the study-abroad programs. We independently chose to develop courses relating chemistry and art and to submit proposals to our respective Florence programs. Because laboratory facilities were unavailable at the two Florence locations, neither course included a laboratory experience. The development of the GU and MSMU courses required some background preparation. We are experienced teachers, yet none of us had ever taught a course in chemistry and art. In preparation, we attended the invaluable Chemistry of Art workshop organized by the Center for Workshops in the Chemical Sciences (CWCS) (10), a National Science Foundation-sponsored initiative. At the workshop, we explored the fundamental connections between chemistry and the arts, including painting, sculpture, photography, and printmaking. The workshop organizers, Patricia Hill and Michael Henchman, graciously shared their course materials with the workshop participants. Upon hearing of our new Florence courses, the organizers helped us to connect, suggested additional reading material pertinent to Florence (11-13), gave us permission to use their PowerPoint and textbook materials, and provided critical feedback as we developed the focus of our courses.
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r 2010 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc. pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc Vol. 87 No. 10 October 2010 10.1021/ed900033x Published on Web 07/30/2010
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In the Classroom Table 1. Lecture Topics and Scientific Concepts Discussed Themes
Topics and Scientific Concepts Discussed
CHEM 180
FLCH 220
Light and color
Electromagnetic spectrum; properties of light; color attributes; color mixing; vision effects; vision
X
X
Fundamental chemistry
Scientific method; types of matter; properties of matter; atomic structure; the periodic table; bonding; nomenclature of simple ionic and molecular compounds
X
X
Materials used by Italian Renaissance painters (1300-1600)
Frescos; chemical equations; mole concept; stoichiometry; colorants; binders
X
X
Methods used to analyze works of art
Anatomy of a painting; physical and chemical processes that cause changes; techniques used to analyze paintings
X
X
Techniques used for cleaning works of art
Cleaning methods; intermolecular forces; solubility; solvent properties; acid-base reactions
X
X
Glass, ceramics, and photography
Structures of solids; ionic bonding; photochemistry
Course Overviews Both universities' programs are located in the heart of Florence, the city considered to be the birthplace of the Renaissance. The GU course, CHEM 180 Art and Chemistry, has a limited focus: the paintings and frescos from the Italian Renaissance period. The course is designed for nonscience majors and does not have any prerequisites. It fulfills a general core requirement for students in the College of Arts and Sciences and students in the Business School. The summer GIF program is six weeks long. Classes meet four times a week for 90 min. CHEM 180 was taught in the summers of 2006 and 2009. The MSMU course is also located in Florence but includes class excursions to other Italian cities tailored to the Chemistry of Art course. Similar to CHEM 180, the primary focus of the MSMU course is the paintings from the Italian Renaissance; however, the chemistry of glass, ceramics, and photography is also introduced. The MSMU course is designed for students of any major and is double-listed as FLCH Florence Chemistry and FLGS Florence General Science. The course has a nonscience majors' physical science course or one semester of general chemistry as a prerequisite. Science students enroll in FLCH 220, which counts as a chemistry elective for a chemistry major or chemistry minor, while nonscience students enroll in FLGS 106, which counts as one of two required core science courses. FLCH 220/FLGS 106 was taught for 12 weeks in the spring semester of 2008. The class met twice a week for 90 min. The three courses (CHEM 180 taught in the summer of 2006, FLCH 220/FLGS 106 taught in the spring of 2008, and CHEM 180 taught in the summer of 2009) were similar, especially the two CHEM 180 courses. For brevity, details of the 2006 CHEM 180 course (CHEM 180) and the 2008 Mount St. Mary's class (FLCH 220) are given here. Additional information for all three courses is provided in the online supporting information. Prior to arriving in Florence, students were asked to purchase several textbooks. The textbooks for CHEM 180 (14-16) were chosen for several reasons. The science textbooks (14, 15) were written for conservators who have no prior chemistry training. The authors treat the readers as professionals who are interested in learning the chemistry relevant to their professions. This “voice” seemed appropriate for the CHEM 180 audience consisting 1086
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primarily of nonscience majors. The other textbook (16) provides a detailed case study of a restoration. Not only does the author describe the analytical techniques used and the chemistry involved with the restoration of the Brancacci Chapel frescos, he introduces the politics that often come into play when a famous piece of work is restored. As with other GU courses designed for nonscience majors, one goal of CHEM 180 was to help students understand what type of questions science can and cannot answer. Finally, all three textbooks are small. Because the GIF students usually travel on the weekends, the faculty hoped the small size of the textbooks would allow the students to include them in their travel bags. The three textbooks were supplemented with additional reading materials in the form of handouts. Students in FLCH 220 also purchased Shulman's book (16); however, their primary textbook was the one written by Patricia Hill (17) for her course and graciously provided at no charge. Students downloaded the text, one chapter at a time, from e-mail attachments. The format of the courses was primarily lecture style with some in-class group work. The students were given daily reading assignments, and in CHEM 180, several problems to complete prior to lecture. Table 1 lists the topics covered and the scientific concepts emphasized. A brief description of the topics is given below and interested readers are directed to the online supporting information for additional details. Chemistry Topics Covered Art is best appreciated if the viewer understands properties of light, color, and vision. Therefore, CHEM 180 began with a discussion of light. After introducing the electromagnetic spectrum, the class explored the interaction between light and matter including transmission, reflection, refraction, absorption, and emission. This was followed by an introduction to the attributes of color such as hue, brightness, and saturation. We discussed additive and subtractive color mixing and illustrated them with examples. Additional examples were given to show visual effects, such as spatial effects of color. This discussion concluded with a brief introduction to human vision. Fundamental chemistry concepts were discussed next. Our primary goal was to help students gain an appreciation of the relationship between macroscopically observed behaviors and the
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In the Classroom
atomic composition of matter. After introducing matter, we explored the properties of the elements. This led to a discussion of the three main types of bonding interactions. The challenge was to maintain the discussion at an appropriate level, as the tendency was to delve into more detail than necessary. Chemical equations were introduced in the context of fresco paintings. We discussed the mole concept and students were asked to balance simple chemical equations. The discussion then turned to the various materials used by Renaissance artists. We differentiated colorants into three categories: inorganic pigments, organic dyestuffs, and lakes. We discussed the two commonly used binders during the Renaissance period, egg tempera and drying oils, to introduce fats, oils, proteins, and polymers. The second half of CHEM 180 focused on the restoration and conservation of art. After reviewing the anatomy of a painting, we explored the physical and chemical processes that negatively affect the supports, grounds, colorants, binders, and varnishes. These included expansion and contraction due to humidity changes, water damage, and photo-oxidation of colorants and binders. We introduced destructive and nondestructive analytical techniques, including visible microscopy, X-ray imaging, X-ray fluorescence, ultraviolet fluorescence, and infrared reflectography. We next discussed cleaning methods, both mechanical and chemical. To understand the latter, we introduced additional chemical concepts, including intermolecular forces, solubility, properties of liquids, properties of soaps and detergents, and properties of acids and bases. CHEM 180 concluded with student presentations of case studies of recent Italian restorations. FLCH 220 covered many of the same topics as CHEM 180. However, because it did not include student presentations, there was time to discuss other selected topics. The topic of glass was relevant to the beautiful stained glass and mosaics that are abundant throughout Italy as well as the art of Venetian glass blowing. The topics of ceramics and photography, while not specific to the art of Florence, provided a more rounded look at the chemistry underlying art. Site Visits Ideally, we would have liked to include a laboratory component in which students could have hands-on experiences with paints, pigments, frescos, photography, and more. However, laboratory facilities were unavailable so we provided informal and formal opportunities for students to make first-hand observations of original works of art, restoration projects, and art conservation laboratories as alternatives to laboratory exercises. These opportunities enriched the chemistry learning experience as well as the overall study-abroad experience. Students were encouraged to make connections between the lecture topics we discussed in the classroom and the works of art they encountered as they explored the city. Painting and fresco masterpieces abound in the city of Florence. The world's finest collection of Italian Renaissance art is at the Uffizi Gallery, where, for example, the instructor can point out the transition between egg tempera and oil as paint media. Shulman describes the fresco restoration at the Brancacci Chapel (16) and contrasts the chemistry involved in this restoration with those of the Basilica of Santa Croce and the Museo di San Marco, both located in Florence. The Duomo, Florence's cathedral, has beautiful stained glass windows and the baptistery has Ghiberti's famous bronze doors, as well as the city's most outstanding
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Table 2. Weighting of Assessment Tools for CHEM 180 Graded Course Elements
Percentage of Final grade
Daily assignments
10
Writing assignment at the end of Week 3
15
In-class exam at the end of Week 3
20
Participation in field trips
10
In-class presentation during Week 6
10
Writing assignment at the end of Week 6
10
In-class exam at the end of Week 6
25
mosaics. Ubiquitous marble sculptures illustrate the effect of acid rain on calcium carbonate. Formal class field trips were also arranged. CHEM 180 students visited the Museo di San Marco, which owns a special collection of Renaissance era pigments; the Brancacci Chapel with its restored frescos; and the Opificio delle Pietre Dure e Laboratori di Restauro. These sites are in the historic area of Florence and within walking distance of the GIF building. The Opificio has a staff of over 140 people, including art historians, restorers, and scientists. While at the Opificio, the CHEM 180 students had opportunities to talk with a staff chemist and a staff physicist about the analytical techniques used to evaluate the work of art and, with the help of an interpreter, to interact with a restoration specialist while he restored Raphael's Madonna of the Goldfinch. Typically, the Opificio does not offer public tours; however, private tours may be possible if arranged far in advance. FLCH 220 included field trips to the Bargello museum to see a public display of restoration work in progress on Donatello's David (a bronze sculpture), where the technician answered questions about the cleaning materials she was using; the restoration laboratory of the Museo Opificio delle Pietre Dure to see work in progress cleaning the baptistery doors, which were surrounded by an inert atmosphere to prevent further corrosion; the Museo di San Marco to see a special exhibit on illuminated manuscripts, showing samples of pigments discussed in class; and the nearby (an hour by bus) Polo Scientifico for tours of NMR spectroscopy and laser laboratories, where cutting-edge science contrasts sharply with our daily exposure to Renaissance art. FLCH 220 also included class excursions to other Italian cities with site visits to see the world-renowned mosaics in Ravenna, a glass-making factory in Venice, and the frescos in the Sistine Chapel in Rome. Student Assessment We used a variety of activities to assess student performance in CHEM 180. Table 2 lists the class assignments and the weight of each toward the final grade. A midterm and a comprehensive final exam counted for 45% of the final grade in CHEM 180. The other 55% depended on participation in field trips and performance on daily assignments, a midterm project, and a final project. At midterm, students submitted a written report describing the following attributes of a pigment, dye, or lake used by Italian Renaissance artists: the chemical composition, the type of bonding present, where and how it was obtained, how it was used, and the positive and negative characteristics of the material. Also, students
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described one piece of art: where the material was used, the artist who produced the piece, and its present location. Reference books and access to the Internet were provided as resources. At the end of the term, each student was required to present an indepth case study of a recent painting restoration in both an oral presentation and a written report. In both forms, we asked students to provide the following details: artist, materials used in the work, historical information, significance of the painting, location when created, current location, health of the painting prior to restoration, techniques used to analyze the painting prior to restoration, and restorative methods used. To encourage students to listen to each others' presentations, we asked each student to create a set of three questions pertaining to their case study. These sets of questions were made available to all the students, and one question from each set was included on the final exam. Grades in FLCH 220 were based exclusively on three, onehour exams (included in the online supporting information), equally weighted. No distinction was made between science and nonscience majors in assignments or grading scale.
taught in Paris, a course focusing on paintings from the impressionist era could be developed. Or, if your course will be taught in Beijing, home of the Forbidden City Palace Museum, the focus might shift to Chinese painting and calligraphy of the Qing dynasty. Once the focus is determined, the material presented here may be used as a framework to build a related course. Humans have used all types of matter, both natural and synthetic, to create art since drawing in caves and on rock faces. As chemists, we are in an excellent position to help our students appreciate the important role chemistry has in the restoration and conservation of art.
Evaluation of the Courses
Literature Cited
CHEM 180 was taught in Florence during the summers of 2006 and 2009. Because field trips were an important component of the course, class enrollments were limited to 15 students. In both years, the maximum enrollment was met and additional students had to be turned away. On the course evaluations administered the last day of class in 2006, students said they enjoyed CHEM 180. However, approximately one-third stated the course tried to cover too much material. From a faculty perspective, the courses were enjoyable but somewhat challenging to teach. The course topics were relevant and there were many opportunities to make connections between the classroom discussions and the students' experiences. In general, the students traveled extensively during the entire period and visited many museums, churches, and historic locations throughout Italy and southern Europe. Monday morning classes often started with students sharing details of their weekend adventures and relating the class material to the things they saw or experienced. This aspect of the course was deeply satisfying; however, because the courses were taught in condensed schedules (6 weeks for CHEM 180 and 12 weeks for FLCH 220), the instructors struggled to limit the content to a manageable amount. The instructors agreed with the students' judgment that we tried to cover too much in too little time. When CHEM 180 was taught in the summer of 2009, the instructor modified the syllabus (see the online supporting information for details); however, the students' opinions remained the same. The course contained too much content. Applicability to Other Institutions The courses described herein are applicable to other situations. If your institution has a study-abroad program in Italy, only minor modifications are necessary. If your institution has study abroad programs in other countries, a different focus must be chosen. The materials used by Italian Renaissance artists may not be relevant if you and your students are studying and living someplace other than Italy. If your course will be 1088
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Acknowledgment The authors wish to thank Patricia Hill and Michael Henchmen for their help, the National Science Foundation for support of the CWCS, and their respective institutions for the opportunities to teach these classes. J.A.S. and G.D.D. are grateful to Jennifer Shepherd for sharing her class materials.
1. Ogren, P. J.; Bunge, D. L. J. Chem. Educ. 1971, 48, 681–682. 2. Henchman, M. J. Chem. Educ. 1994, 71, 670. 3. Jacobsen, E. K. J. Chem. Educ. 2001, 78, 1316-1321 and references therein. 4. Kafetzopoulos, C.; Spyrellis, N.; Lymperopoulou-Karaliota, A. J. Chem. Educ. 2006, 83, 1484–1488. 5. Harmon, K. J.; Miller, L. M.; Millard, J. T. J. Chem. Educ. 2009, 86, 817–819. 6. Bopegedera, A. M. R. P. J. Chem. Educ. 2005, 82, 55–59. 7. Uffelman, E. S. J. Chem. Educ. 2007, 84, 1617–1624. 8. Eisenkraft, A.; Heltzel, C.; Johnson, D.; Radcliffe, B. The Science Teacher 2006, November, pp 33-37. 9. Kelley, C.; Jordan, A.; Roberts, C. J. Coll. Sci. Teach. 2001, 31, 162–166. 10. National Science Foundation Center for Workshops in the Chemical Sciences Home Page. http://chemistry.gsu.edu/CWCS/ (accessed Jun 2010). 11. Beck, J.; Daly, M. Art Restoration: The Culture, the Business, and the Scandal; W. W. Norton and Company: London, 1993. 12. Bomford, D.; Dunkerton, J.; Gordon, D.; Ashok, R. Art in the Making: Italian Painting before 1400; National Gallery Company Ltd.: London, 2002. 13. Cellini, B. Benevenuto Cellini: Autobiography, translated by George Bull; Penguin Books: London, 1998. 14. The Conservation Unit of the Museums and Galleries Commission. Science for Conservators Vol. 1: An Introduction to Materials, 2nd ed.; Routledge: New York, 1992. 15. The Conservation Unit of the Museums and Galleries Commission. Science for Conservators, Vol. 2: Cleaning, 2nd ed.; Routledge: New York, 1992. 16. Shulman, K. Anatomy of a Restoration; Walker and Company: New York, 1991. 17. Hill, P. S. Molecular Basis of Color and Form: Chemistry in Art. Unpublished course materials, 2007.
Supporting Information Available Course syllabi; course outlines; assignments; study guides; exams; additional resources. This material is available via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.
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