Technicon's system requires only 8 ff of bench space
The increase in the number of water samples tested at all regulatory agency levels over the past five years was enormous. Not only has the quantity of samples grown dramatically, but the number of.parameters being measured has increased as well. Since the passage of the Federal Water Poilution Control Act Amendments of 1972, many state agencies have been empowered to perform this work on a greatly expanded level. Although not all states have as yet been empowered with this responsibility. it is only a matter of time and the acquisition of technical expertise before they will be so empowered. This growth in the amount of testing is continuing. Passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974). and continuing National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit legislation will undoubtedly create even greater demands on workloads that are already at a significant level. Manual analytical technology cannot possibly cope with this burgeoning workload. Just considering space and manpower requirements alone, without considering data handling requirements and the budgetary squeeze with which many agencies are presently being confronted, makes this quite evident. The availability of automated analytical instrumentation and technology has enabled the regulatory agencies, as well as laboratories in the private sector, to handle these everincreasing workloads, without significant increases in space and personnel. According to EPA's Dr. Mark J. Carter in Chicago, "We would have had to make tremendous increases in numbers of personnel had we continued to handle our analytical workload using manual procedures." Many automated wet chemical methods are listed in the 1974 edition of EPA's Manual of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, which contains the chemical analytical procedures used in EPA laboratories for the examination of ground and surface waters, domestic and industrial waste effluents and treatment process samples. To quote from the introduction to the Manual . . method selection was based on the following criteria: 1. The method should measure the desired property or constituent with precision, accuracy, and specificity sufficient to meet the data needs of EPA, in the presence of the interfering materials encountered in water and waste samples. 2. The procedure should utilize the equipment and skills available in modern water pollution control laboratories.
Automated methods for assessing water aualitv come of aae I
I
v
With automation, a laboratory can vastly increase its workload with no additional personnel
Michael J. F. DuCros Jerome Salpeter Technicon Industrial Systems Tarrytown, N. Y. 1059 1
'I.
Volume 9.Number 10. October 1975
929
3. The selected method is in use in many laboratories or has been sufficiently tested to establish its validity. 4. The method should be rapid enough to permit routine use for the examination of a large number of samples. Instrumental methods have been selected in preference to manual procedures because of the improved speed, accuracy and precision. In keeping with this policy, procedures (twelve in the 1974 Manual) for the TechniconTMAutoAnalyzerTMII Continuous-Flow Analytical system have been included for laboratories having this equipment available.” Automated methodologies have been developed for a wide variety of parameters. Table 1 classifies the major methods for the AutoAnalyzer 1 I Continuous-Flow Analytical system.
Automated methodologies are also available for ranges other than the standard ranges listed in Table 1, and for additional parameters less frequently encountered. Most of these methodologies have been developed by Technicon; some have been developed by government agencies and individual users to meet particular requirements; and others have been developed jointly. Ten of the methods in Table 1 have been listed in the Federal Register as approved methods. An additional four methods have variance approval.
Central, on-site facilities Effective pollution testing requires the use of automated wet chemistry systems designed for both central laboratory Table 1. Major automated wet chemistry
IndiFederal Parameter
vidual variance
Register
ap-
Practical
approved
provals
methodQ
Acidity (thymol blue)
0
Analysis rate (sampled hr)
50
Rangeb
Chemistry
0-500 mg/liter CaCO,
only graduai changes inlndicator color instead o f the usual SharD chanae o f the acidbase titration. Alkalinity (methyl orange)
60
0-500 CaCO, mg/liter
Same procedure as for Acidity (above) except indicator i s methyl orange.
Ammonia (dialysis)
0
60
0-1.0 mg/liter
Boron
0
30
0-1.0 mg/liter
Reaction w i t h carminic acid in concentrated sulfuric acid. The color o f the carminic acid changes f r o m bright red t o a bluish red or blue, depending o n the concentration o f boron.
60
0-10 mg/liter
Liberation of thiocyanate ion f r o m mercuric thiocyanate b y the formation o f non-ionized b u t soluble mercuric chloride. In the presence o f ferric i o n the liberated thiocyanate forms a highly coldred ferric thiocyanate complex proportional to the original chloride concentration.
Chloride
Chromium (hexavalent)
0
40
0-200 pg/liter
Reaction o f acidic s-diphenylcarbazide w i t h hexavalent chromium t o produce a red-violet compound.
Chromium (total)
0
20
0-1.5
Trivalent chromium i s oxidized t o the hexavalent state b y using alkaline hypobromite.
COD
0
20
0-100 mg/liter
Digestion o f sample w i t h a potassium dichromate-sulfuric acid digestion mixture and the depletion o f the hexavalent chromidm due t o the oxidation reaction is measured colorimetricatly.
Color
0
60
0-250 units
Color is compared t o potassium hexachloroplatinate standards at p H 6.8.
Copper
0
60
0-2.0
Cyanide
0
30
0-500 pg/liter
Cyanides are converted t o cyanogen chloride b y reaction w i t h chloramine-T which subsequently reacts w i t h pyridine aAd barbituric acid t o give a red-colored complex. Cyanide often exists in metallic complexes such as ferricyanide zincocyanide and cubricyanide; therefore uv digestion pius distillation converts the hetallocyanides into simple cyanides which, upon acidification, f o r m hydrogen cyanide.
Fluoride
0
20
0-2.0
Distillation o f hydrogen fluoride and reaction w i t h alizarin fluorine blue-lanthanum reagent t o f o r m a lilac-blue complex.
Hardness (total)
30
0-250 mg/liter CaCO,
Disodium magnesium ethylenediam inetetraacetate (EDTA) i s used t o exchange magnesium o n an equivalent basis for calcium and/ or any other cation that forms a more stable E D T A chelate than magnesium. Magnesium IS then reacted w i t h caimagite at PH 10.0 t o f o r m a red-violet complex.
I r o n (total)
20
0-1.0 mg/liter
Formation of a violet complex of ferrous Iron with 2,4,6-tri (2‘-pyridyl)-s-triazine (TPTZ). Soluble iron complexes and precipitated iron are converted t o their ionic state b y treatment o f the sample w i t h thioglycolic acid at 95’C. Hydroxylamine insures reduction of any trivalent iron t o I t s divalent state and a sodium acetate buffer provides the proper p H for maxlmum color development.
930 Environmental Science & Technology
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
testing facilities and continuous on-line monitoring. On-line monitors eliminate delay in obtaining results from the central laboratory, and are used whenever continuous measurements are needed, or whenever inherent sample instability precludes the transfer of samples to the central laboratory. The AutoAnalyzer II system, a modular system capable of assaying substances at rates of up to 60 samples/hr, is widely used in thousands of central laboratories throughout the world. Modular design permits analysis of liquid, solid or gas samples by a simple addition or substitution to the basic analytical train. In the same way, detection methods can be varied to include colorimetry, spectrophotometry, flame photometry, fluorometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy and poten-
tiometry. Interchangeable analytical test cartridges are available for a wide variety of determinations; modules may be added to permit simultaneous determination of up to three parameters. The Technicon Monitor IV system for continuous on-site measurements utilizes the same continuous-flow concept, and supplements the AutoAnalyzer II system.
Typical users The regulatory laboratories, both EPA and state, perform the majority of their wet chemical tests on automated systems for purposes of monitoring municipal and industrial compliance with both NPDES and individual state laws. (In some cases, state levels are more restrictive than those allowed by
methodologies for the AutoAnalyzer I I system Individual Federal variance Register ap approved provals
tical
Analysis rate (samples/
methoda
hr)
Rangeb
Chemistry
10
0.2-20 pg/liter
This flameless procedure i s a physical method based on the absorption o f radia,tion at 253.7 n m b y mercury vapor. Mercury is reduced t o i t s elemental state aerated f r o m solution, and Da55ed through a c‘erl i n an atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Nitrate & nitrite (dialysis)
40
0-1.0
Nitrogen (ammonia)
60
0-10 mg/liter
Ammonia-sodium phenate-hypochlorite reaction t o f o r m an Indophenol compound (Berthelot reaction).
Parameter Mercury
0
Prac-
mg/liter
Turbidity and color due t o the organics are removed by dialysis. Reduction o f nitrate t o n i t r i t e by a cadmium-copper reduction colu m n is followed b y diazotization and coupling.
Nitrogen (Kjeldahl, total)
0
20
0-1000 mg/liter
Digestion of sample w i t h hydrogen peroxidesulfuric acid and measurement, b y Berthelot reaction, of the ammonia formed.
Nitrogen (nitrite)
0
60
0-1.0 mg/iiter N
N i t r i t e ion reacts w i t h acidic sulfanilamide t o yield a diazo compound tha! couples w i t h N-1-naDhthylethylene-diamine dihydrochloride t o f o r m a soluble dye.
Nitrogen (nitrate & nitrite)
0
40
0-2.0 mg/liter N
Reduction o f nitrate t o nitrite b y a cadmiumcopper reduction column followed b y diazotizatlon and coupling.
40
0-0.40 mg/liter t o 0-25 rng/liter
Manual digestion. reaction of ammonia sodium salicylate sodihm njtroprusside, and ;odium hypochlohte (chlorine source) in a buffered alkaline medium forms a green ammoniasalicylate complex.
0-10 mg/liter
Addition o f zinc forms a blue-cplored complex w i t h 2-carboxy-2’.hydroxy-5 -suifoformazyC benzene (Zincon) in a solution buffered t o p H 9 2 When N T A i s added the Zn-Zincon compie; is broken which reciuces the optical density i n probortion t o the amount of N T A present.
0-500 pg/liter
Distillation of phenol and subsequent reaction w i t h alkaline ferricyanide and 4-aminoantipyrine t o f o r m a red complex.
0-10 mg/liter 0-1.0 mg/liter
Digestion w i t h sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide reactlon w i t h molybdate and antimony folloded b y reduction of ascorbic acid.
50
0-10 mg/liter
Ammonium molybdate reacts i n an acid medium w i t h phosphate t o f o r m molybdophosphoric acid that i s reduced t o molybdenum blue complex b y reaction w i t h ascorbic acid.
Silicates
60
0-10 mg/liter SiO,
Reduction of silicomoiybdate i n acid S O l U t i O n t o “molybdenum blueip b y ascorbic acid.
Sucrose
50 50
0-1000 mg/liter 0-100 mg/liter
Hydrolysis w i t h hydrochloric acid; dialysis i n t o alkaline potassium ferricyanide.
Sulfate
30
0-300 mg/liter
Reaction w i t h barium chloride t o f o r m barlum sulfate. Excess barium reacts w i t h methylt h y m o l blue t o f o r m a bluesolored chelate. Uncomplexed methylthymol blue color is gray. if it is all chelated w i t h barium the color is bliie. Initially. the barium chloridGand methylthymol-tilue are equimolar and equivalent t o the highest concentration of sulfate ion expected; thus the amount o f uncomplexed methylthymoi blue is equal t o the sulfate present.
Sulfite
40
0-3.0 mg/liter
Reaction o f sulfite w i t h formaldehyde and prosaniline t o f o r m purple p-rosaniline methylsulfonic acid.
Nitrogen (organic plus ammonia)
NTA
Phenol
40
Phosphorus (total)
0
Phosphorus (0-phosphate)
0
9 3 3
a Method i n practical use but general regulatory approval not yet obtained bMethod ranges can be adjusted t o suit particular needs. Method resolutioh is typically 1%of full scale.
Volume 9, Number 10, October 1975
931
NPDES Permit Prowam I
Parameter
~
Other Purposes
Analyses m fiscal 1 9 7 5
Analyses m Parameter
fiscal 1975
the NPDES permits.) Both EPA and state laboratories use the same instrumentation for collecting survey data as required for annual reviews of the quality of water basins. Other federal agencies, including the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, use automation for national surveys and specific projects. industrial and municipal wastewater treatment laboratories use automated wet chemistry systems that are identical to those used by the regulatory agencies. This allows for standardization of instrumentation and methodologies, and the resulting improved precision gives both the NPDES permit holders and the monitoring agencies greater confidence in the data than would be the case if manual methods were used. Further, the capacity and flexibility of the automated systems enable industria!and wastewater treatment plants lo utilize this instrumentation for process control. By performing analyses more frequently and at more points in the process, better process control is achieved, and lower levels of pollutants are found in the effluents leaving the plants. Frequently, the savings accruing from automated process control result in a more rapid payment schedule for the instrumentation. For this reason, both laboratory and on-line instrumentation are widely used in industrial and wastewater treatment plants. The belief sometimes expressed that pollution control represents an additional cost burden is, very often, totally incorrect. .. _..
Texas Instruments, Inc. monitors excess cyanide with this instrument Independent testing laboratories are performing increasing numbers of tests for clients whose operations are not large enough to justify the laboratory facilities needed to obtain the required NPDES data. Independent laboratories make extensive use of AutoAnalyzer II systems to analyze the wide range of sample types sent to them. Information on some typical users of automated systems will be provided. Although individual circumstances will vary with each laboratory, their justification for automation is basically the same: it permits them to handle greater analytical workloads more economically, and with improved precision and accuracy. €PA. The analytical workload and regulatory effectiveness of federal and state €PA laboratories are greatly dependent
Table 3. With automation, 3 people can handle three times the workload formerly handled by 12 people a t Pa.3 Bureau of Water Quality Manaqement Lab Automated Method Manual Method0.b ___ Parameter
Distilled fluoride Distilled cyanide Distilled phenol Total phosphorus
Number per hour
Sulfate
3-4 1-2 3-4 6-8 13-16
iron
10-12
Alkalinity
10-12 13-16 13-16 est. 10-13 5-7 13-16
CI NH,-N NO,-N NO,-N
Hardness TOTAL
100-1 26
Benchspace required
Personnel
10 i t
1
15 i t
1 1
15 i t 10 i t 5it
1
5it 5 it
1
114ft
Bench space required
Personneic
1 1
2D ftd
8it 8 fi 5 it 5it
Number per hour
1 1 1 1 1 12
370
45 f t
3
e Source-HandbOOK f o r Analytical Quality Control in Water and Wastewater Laboratories E.P.A. 11 Includes Sample p r e p and cleanup. c o n e technician neeaea t o prepare iamnies ana giarrware. d ~ u t o ~ n a i y r e un r i t can be “sea i o 7 otner analyses. s w r c e : American water WOU II ASSOCiation. FloYa D. Keffard.
932
Environmental Science 8 Technology
Table 4. The USGS measures 10 parameters by automated methods Parameter
Number of automated analyses in fiscal 1975 ~~
Nitrate & nitrite Nitrite Ammonia Total Kjeldahl nitrogen0 Sulfate Silica
Chloride o-Phosphate Total phosphate Cyanide
7710 6060 4350 5050 6400 4690 7010 3380 6860 1120
aManua1 digestion plus distillation
on the use of automated methods. All ten EPA regional laboratories use Technicon automated instrumentation. The experience of EPA's Central Regional Laboratory in Chicago (Region v) typifies dependency on automation. Region V analyzes the parameters shown in Table 2 by using automated methods. As with other EPA laboratories, Dr. Carter and his associates in EPA Region V continually develop new techniques by using available modular systems to expand method and monitoring capabilities. They actively pursue federal approval for automated analytical techniques. For example, they recently developed and obtained approval of a semi-automated COD method. The advantages of this new method are summed up in Dr. Carter's words. "When COD tests were performed manually, we could only obtain 20 reportable results per day on a sustained basis. We now utilize the standard digestion procedure along with our newly-developed automated procedure based on the spectrophotometric measurement of Cr (111) (see additional reading, first reference). We are now able to analyze three times as many samples per day, and have reduced the consumption of very expensive reagents and the production of mercury wastes twentyfold.' ' State laboratories. Thirty-four state water laboratories now use automated chemistry systems to some degree, regardless of whether they have taken over the NPDES program. The number of Technicon instrument system channels per state ranges from one to twenty-seven. (In the smaller state laboratories, one channel can be used to accomplish much of the total workload.) Typical of one of the more highly automated state water laboratories is the laboratory of the Bureau of Water Quality Management of the Department of Environmental Resources in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. According to Floyd D. Kefford, Laboratory Director at Harrisburg, in fiscal 1971 the laboratory's routine test load was 116,000 analyses, with a staff of 13. At the same time, increased water quality standards had resulted in the need for lower detection limits (see additional reading, second reference). The laboratory found it necessary to reduce the analytical backlog that had accumulated, and to reduce manpower and space requirements. Automation of methodologies began in 197 1. Now, four years later, the laboratory routinely performs 70-75 YO of its analyses by using automated systems. The projected workload for fiscal 1976 is 215,000 tests with a staff of 15, which includes 25,000 tests in connection with the introduction of their Quality Control Program. According to Floyd Kefford, however, the lab has sufficient instrumentation to perform up to 430,000 tests per day, with a staff of 15. They would only have to add data handling facilities and two additional persons to process the data in the event more
tests were required. Implementation of the Safe Drinking Water Act, or other measures, might well call for large increases in numbers of tests. Their monitoring procedure in Harrisburg is to analyze all effluent samples for the basic parameters: alkalinity, ammonia nitrogen, BOD, chloride, nitrate nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, pH, suspended solids, total phosphorus and turbidity. All potable water samples are analyzed for: alkalinity, dissolved solids, fluoride, iron, manganese, nitrogen series, pH, phosphorus, sulfate and turbidity. Illinois. The four water testing laboratories of the Illinois Department of Environmental Resources performed a total of approximately 450,000 tests on 60,000 samples in the fiscal year 1973. Over half of these tests were made by using instrumental techniques, including GC, mass spectrometry, electron microscopy, atomic absorption and automated wet chemistry. Between one and 35 parameters were measured on each sample-13 different tests were routinely performed with Technicon systems. In addition to these basic analyses, they analyze for other parameters, depending on pollutants known or suspected to be encountered in a particular geographical area. For example, phenols are more likely to be found near steel mills, coking plants, and in some sanitary sewage wastes. Cyanides are more likely to be found near plating facilities, steel mills, and pharmaceutical and chemical plants. Metals most frequently found include: aluminum, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc. At present, all metal analyses are made by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. USGS. The Albany, New York laboratory of the Water Resources Division-one of three U.S. Geological Survey Central Laboratories-working in cooperation with the individual states, analyzes ground waters, surface waters and bottom sediment. The Albany laboratory began converting to automated testing in 1968 to keep up with its increasing workload and to improve analytical precision. Their current analytical workload is 10,000 samples per year. The parameters analyzed by automated wet chemistry methods are shown in Table 4. Their average cost-per-test for all parameters is $2.25. This includes expendables, overhead, salaries and five-year amortization of instrumentation. This cost-per-test figure is expected to decrease in the future. Present analytical workload is limited because of insufficient storage space for samples; the laboratory is to move to larger facilities soon, and they estimate that they could double their present testing workload without increasing the number of personnel or instrumentation. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Analytical Laboratory Group of the Environmental Effects Laboratory of the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, provides analytical services for environmental research sponsored by Corps of Engineers' civil works programs and other agencies. Analyses have been conducted to support studies in solid and hazardous waste material disposal, plant nutrient and heavy metals cycling, elemental partitioning of dredged materials, bioassays and simulated ecosystem modeling of freshwater impoundments, to name a few. They installed automated analyzers in 1972, mainly to conserve numbers of laboratory personnel. This past year (fiscal 1975), a total of 60,000 analytical determinations were performed; samples were analyzed for 27 parameters in a variety of matrices-synthetic sea water, fresh water, soil and plant extracts and water from numerous Volume 9, Number 10, October 1975
933
CISCLE 21 ON READER SERVICE CARD
A RARE OPPORTUNITY TO HELP SOLVE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS Nalco, an lnternallonal leader in water, envlronmental and energy sclance, Is seeking appllcanls for 3 staff posltlons. 1. Speclallst, Source Sampling in the Pollution Control Consulting Section, responsible for functions such as job pre-surveys, preparation of proposals, organization and implementation of emission source sampling projects, writing of reports. instruction of stack sampling trainees. marketing assistance and other related business functions. M.S. or Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering or equivalent. with technical writing ability are required. Professional engineering registration desirable.
2. Assoclate Sclenllst in the Chemistry Section responsible for water quality studies, iab/fieid work, data tabulation. and report writing. Ph.0. or M.S. in Chemistry with graduate school experience or 3-5 years work experience in aquatic chemistry is required.
3. Assoclate Sclenllst in the Terrestrial Ecology Section responsible for environmental impact study design and implementation related to wildlife ecology. M.S. or equivalent, technical writing ability and field experience in identification of birds and mammals are required. These positions offer starting salaries commensurate with experience, generous company-paid benefits including profit sharing, and potential to advance professionally Send your resume with salary history in confidence to:
PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT NALCO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES 1500 FRONTAGE ROAD, NORTHBROOK, ILLINOIS 60062 An Equal Opportunity Employer
CIRCLE 1 ON READER SERVICE CARD
934
Environmental Science & Technology
-_/
Table 5. A breakdown of Calgon's automated systems Average number of automated Parameter automated
tenrlvr
estuaries. Of the total 60,000 determinations, 23,000 were made using Technicon automated systems. Parameters analyzed by automated methods were: total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, o-phosphate, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate. and nitrate plus nitrite. The laboratory is now in the process of automating cyanide and fluoride assays. Wastewater treatment plant. The laboratory of the wastewater treatment plant for the City of Grand Rapids, Mich., is a typical facility for a municipality with a population of 250,000. The laboratory installed automated instrumentation five years ago to analyze effluents prior to discharge into the Grand River. In fiscal 1974, they analyzed 10,580 samples and standards for ammonia, chloride, nitratelnitrite, nitrite, phosphate and total Kjeldahl nitrogen. The laboratory estimates out-of-pocket costs for analysis of these 10,580 samples and standards to be $10,200, which includes costs of manpower, reagents and instrument operation (e.g., electricity and tubing), exclusive of amortization. The laboratory utilizes standard methodologies, but it has made minor modifications. For example, the total Kjeldahl nitrogen test procedure has been modified by the addition of a probe that bubbles air into the sample cups to prevent sediment settling. industrial users. Most large industrial plants and laboratories utilize automated wet chemistry systems. Applications are of two general types: monitoring in compliance with the permit program process control. For example, American Cyanamid Company utilizes both on-line and laboratory automated analysis systems at their plant in Westwego, Louisiana. In the plant, a Monitor IV system is used for continuous monitoring of cyanide in effluents discharged to the Mississippi River. If cyanide exceeds the allowable limit, the effluent is diverted to a treatment pond to avoid violating their NPDES permit. In the laboratory, an AUtoAnalyzer II system is used for determinations of ammoniacal nitrogen and official daily cyanide analyses of 24-hour composite samples for submission to the EPA. A second example of an industrial user is Texas Instruments, Inc., which utilizes Monitor IV systems at the Attleboro, Mass., plant for monitoring cyanide and silver concentrations in plating baths of the continuous strip process. Automation of the process has allowed them to maximize product yield, thus eliminating excess cyanide in the effluent waste stream. Water testing laboratories
Calgon Analytical Laboratories perform over 300,000 water quality determinations per year, of which 35% are done by instrumental techniques. These techniques include automated wet chemistry systems, flame photometry, atomic absorption, carbon analysis, IR spectrophotometry, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Caigon started automating its wet chemical methods in 1965, and it now performs over 40,000 determinations per year by automated systems (see Table 5). As reported in the December 1974 issue of American Laboratory: "Engineers and scientists at Calgon fully agree that instrumentation has provided them with more accurate and comprehensive data, which leads to better recommendations for pretreatment of incoming waters, and treatment of waste waters." Betz Laboratories is using automated wet chemistry systems for determinations of water quality for external clients through a subsidiary and for internal use in recommending treatment programs. Although wet chemistry automation did not begin until 1972, the current rate is nearing 100,000 determinationslyear from an estimated total of 500,000.Of the parameters now being measured-chloride, phosphate, SUIfate and total hardness-approximately 20-30,000 determinations per year per parameter are performed by automated wet chemistry systems. Betz, however, continues to explore further automation. Summing up Increasedemphasis on water quality has caused significant increases in the analytical workloads of federal, state and local regulatory agencies, as well as municipal and industrial facilities. The availability of automated wet chemistry instrumentation and methodologies has provided these laboratories with the capability to analyze larger numbers of samples for more parameters more economically and more accurately than the use of manual methods permits. Additional reading Jirka, A. M., and Carter, M. J.. Anal. Chem., 47,8 (1975). Kefford. F. D., "Automated Analysis as an Analytical Tool," 2nd Annual Water Technical Conference, Dallas, Texas, Dec. 2, 1974.
Michael J. F. DuCros is presently marketina director of Technicon industrial Systems. He was previously marketing manager for the Environmental Sciences division. ~
Jerome Salpeter joined Technicon Industrial Systems in 1966,and is director of research and development. Coordinated by LRE
Extensive use of instrumentaltechniques has enabled laboratories engaged in water analysis to provide clients with greater and faster service. Take, for example, the experiences of two of the largest water testing laboratories-calgon Analytical Laboratories, a department of Calgon Corporation in Pittsburgh, and Betz Laboratories, Inc. in Trevose, Pa. Volume 9. Number 10.October 1975
935
