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Chapter 8

Ganges River Contamination: A Review Downloaded by CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIV on December 8, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): December 3, 2015 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2015-1206.ch008

Ravindra Kumar Sinha*,1 and Bommanna G. Loganathan2 1Environmental

Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Patna University, Patna 800 005, India 2Department of Chemistry and Watershed Studies, Institute Murray State University, 1201 Jesse D. Jones Hall, Murray, Kentucky 42071, U.S.A. *E-mail: [email protected].

Organochlorine pesticides, brominated/perfluorinated compounds, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, steroids, hormones, phthalates, and plasticizers etc have been in use in a wide range of agricultural, industrial and sanitary commodities in the Ganges River basin, India. Widespread use of these chemicals has resulted in vigorous deterioration of the Ganges River ecosystem. Very few systematic studies have been conducted to assess the extent of contamination by the POCs (Persistent Organochlorines) and other toxins. This review aims to examine the contamination levels, spatial and temporal distribution pattern of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and other chemicals in the multi compartment Ganges River environment. The available literature leads to a conclusion that the Ganges River is highly contaminated by dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), heavy metals etc. however, scarcity of data on other POPs and emerging contaminants makes it challenging to assess their exposure in the entire length of the river. No evidence of a general decline in DDT and HCH residues in the river and its biota were found, although few studies, suggest a declining trend in levels of banned organochlorine pesticides (OCPs).

© 2015 American Chemical Society In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

Downloaded by CENTRAL MICHIGAN UNIV on December 8, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date (Web): December 3, 2015 | doi: 10.1021/bk-2015-1206.ch008

Introduction Rivers in the Ganges basin are the main source of freshwater for about half the population of India and Bangladesh (1). In India, rivers play a key role in the economic growth by providing drinking water, water for irrigation and industrial purposes which currently sustains a growing population of over 1.25 billion (2). The Ganges River is one of the largest rivers in India that traverses through major cities such as Kanpur, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna and Kolkata, covering a distance of over 2,700 km (3). (Figure 1). India is primarily an agricultural country and has been undergoing rapid industrialization and economic development in recent years (4, 5). Intensive farming, industrialization and urbanization have been accompanied by widespread use of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), particularly DDTs and HCHs which lead to contamination of aquatic and terrestrial environments (2). Most of the monitoring studies reported DDT and HCH levels in river water higher than the permissible limits (6, 7). Although banned/or severely restricted in many developed countries, OCPs are still being used in India, and not only for agriculture, but also, for control of vectors of various diseases like malaria, kala-azar (black fever). As the OCPs are persistent in nature, and due to their volatile and non-degradable properties, these pesticides find their way in runoff even after several years of their application (8). Industrial discharges, municipal sewage and storm water drainage also contribute contamination of other chemicals in the rivers and lakes. Although, the use of POPs in India has been banned or restricted during the last decade (2), monitoring of their residues in the rivers is required to assess the impact on human health and related ecological risks. There is no single study available reporting the levels of these contaminants across the Ganges basin (1). Previous reports of OCPs levels in Ganges River basin are either for specific tributaries or for a stretch of the Ganges River (1). Available information, however, is very fragmentary and often data are not directly comparable since they have been collected using different methods and without adopting a comprehensive and consistent monitoring design. As there is no compiled information on the contamination of the Ganges, it is imperative to collect, compare and critically analyze historical data from the past monitoring. This chapter focuses on contamination levels, spatial, temporal distribution pattern of OCPs and other persistent chemicals in the multi compartment Ganges River environment.

Characteristics of the Ganges River The Ganges River originates at Gaumukh cave (Lat. 30°55'N, Long. 79°07'E), of the Gangotri Glacier system (Lat. 30°43' - 31°01'N and Long. 79°00'-79°17'E), at an altitude of 4100 m in the Garhwal Himalayas under the name of River Bhagirathi. This glacier system is a cluster of many glaciers comprising the main Gangotri Glacier (length: 30.20 km; width: 0.20 - 2.35 km; area: 86.32 km2) (9). (Singh et al. 2005) Another river, the Alaknanda, originates from the Bhagirath-Kharak (Lat. 30049'N Long 79017'E) and Satopanth (Lat. 30045'N 130 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


Long. 79021'E) glaciers about 100 km South-East of Gaumukh at almost the same altitude above the Badrinath shrine (Figure 1). Both Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers receive several tributaries and flow separately for over 200 km before they merge at Devprayag in the Lower Himalayas where the combined river attains the name of Ganges. The Ganges River flows for 64 km before descending to Rishikesh at the foothill of the Himalayas; and after winding further for 24 km arrives at Haridwar where a Bhimgauda Barrage has been constructed on the Ganges River to divert almost 90% of the water to the Western Ganga Canal mainly for irrigation purposes. From its origin at Gaumukh to the mouth at Sagar Island where it discharges into the Bay of Bengal, the Ganges River traverses through a vast alluvial plains of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal states through big cities, covering a total distance of over 2715 km (10).

Figure 1. Map of the Ganges River basin in India. 131 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


The average annual flow rate of the Ganges River is 18700 m3s-1 (11). The average annual flow of Ganges River at Farakka (about 2,200 km from the origin point) near India-Bangladesh border is about 525 x105Mm3 (Million cubic meters), i.e. 665905.63 m3/s (12). A 2.5 km long barrage (gated dam) across the Ganges River at Farakka diverts the river water through the Farakka Feeder Canal to the Bhagirathi-Hoogli rivers in India which ultimately discharges into the Bay of Bengal at Sagar Island. The discharge increases from Haridwar to Farakka 40 times due to significant contribution from the tributaries of the Ganges River (12). The largest contribution to the Ganges flow rate is by the river Ghaghara (20%), followed by the Kosi, the Gandak, the Son, the Gomati, the Burhi Gandak and the Tons (13). Except Son and Tons rivers, which originate from the highlands of Central India, all other rivers, the northern tributaries, originate from the Himalayas or its foothills. The Ganges River has large variations in its temporal flow. Snow and glacier melt during the hot months (March to June) provide large summer flows to the Ganges River and its tributaries. The maximum discharge of those rivers is observed during monsoon months (July to September) (12). The southern rain-fed tributaries, originating from the Central India plateau, contribute less than the northern tributaries. Although the flow data in the Ganges River has been declared as ‘Classified’ by the Government of India, there has been a perceptible decline in the river flow during the last 4 decades (Personal observation of the corresponding author). This decline could be attributed to indiscriminate unsustainable withdrawals of river water, mainly through irrigation canals constructed for extensive and intensive crop cultivation. These withdrawals must have affected the pollutants assimilative capacity of the river leading to higher load of contaminants in the river. The Ganges River basin supplies vast quantities of sediments from erosion of the Himalayan Mountains from the slope erosion of the Himalayan foothills and sheet erosion of the Gangetic alluvial plain. Consequently, the Ganges River carries an annual heavy load of around 5.74 × 108 t yr-1 of sediment (14). Sources of Contamination in the Ganges River The Ganges River basin covers about 26% of Indian territory, which supports over 43% of the Indian population (about 1.25 billion in 2014) (3). The intensive use for agriculture, rapidly increasing population, rising standards of living, and exponential growth of industries and urbanization have exposed water resources in the Gangetic Plains, and specifically rivers, to various forms of degradation (15). The Ganges River exhibits high pollution levels and is not fit for swimming/bathing especially during the dry season (February-March) (16). A large contribution to this contamination is from indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the agriculture sector in the river basin. DDTs and other chemicals are also used frequently to control vectors of Kala-azar (black fever), malaria and other diseases in the Ganges River basin both in rural and urban areas (17) as India is one of the countries that had been permitted to use DDT for their vector control programs under Stockholm Convention (18). The Ganges River in its 2,700 km journey receives approximately 13,000 million litre per day (mld) sewage generated from 118 municipalities and urban 132 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


communities spread over in 29 Class I cities (population ≥ 100,000), 23 Class II (population between 50,000 to 100,000) cities and 48 towns (population Pb>Cr>Cd (87) (Table 5). Compared to Bhagalpur, the heavy metal concentrations in river water at Kolkata was found to be low due to flow of regulated relatively silt free freshwater in the Ganges from Farakka Barrage, besides tidal effects in the river which dilutes the metal concentrations. 147 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

148


Table 5. Average Concentrations of Metals (μg g-1) or (μg ml-1) in Various Matrices Collected from the River Ganges and Its Tributaries in India Location

Source and Sampling year

Matrix

Pb

Fe

Cd

Cr

Cu

Zn

Ni

Co

Mn

Hg

As

Ref. #

Varanasi

7 km stretch of River Ganges (2001-2002)

Water (n=18)

0.36

61.40

0.014

0.11

0.22

0.724

0.166

ND

2.19

0.0002

ND

(91)

Bhagalpur

~ 8 km stretch of River Ganges (2006-2007)

Water (n=18)

ND

ND

ND

0.17

0.04

0.242

0.038

ND

ND

ND

ND

(90)

Kolkata

30 km stretch of Hooghly River (2002-2003)

Water (n=10)

0.004

1.03

0.0001

0.013

ND

0.019

0.003

0.002

ND

BDL

0.002

(90)

Varanasi


Sediment (n=18)

68.83

20950

2.07

48.62

32.65

158.7

52.96

ND

533.256

0.067

ND

(91)

Bhagalpur

~ 8 km stretch of River Ganges (2006-2007)

Sediment (n=18)

ND

ND

ND

0.05

0.03

0.278

0.028

ND

ND

ND

ND

(90)

Kolkata

30 km stretch of HooghlyRiver (2002-2003)

Sediment (n=10)

14.77

30560

0.934

14.42

ND

65.24

18.39

8.587

ND

0.225

3.941

(90)

Varanasi


Benthos (n=30)

7.85

2790

2.08

0.66

55.8

110.40

1.12

ND

493.12

0.118

ND

(91)

Varanasi


Fish (n=77)

2.25

340.17

3.32

7.29

7.34

62.85

4.36

ND

47.60

2.638

ND

(91)

Varanasi


Fish (n= NA)

ND

65.56

ND

7.98

17.50

22.8

3.62

ND

6.50

ND

ND

(92)

Patna


Fish (n= 12)

0.70

410.0

0.080

ND

6.30

160.0

1.900

ND

27.00

ND

ND

(69)

In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.

Source and Sampling year

Matrix

Pb

Fe

Cd

Cr

Cu

Zn

Ni

Co

Mn

Hg

As

Ref. #

Patna


Ganges Dolphin (n=12)

0.98

467.8

0.60

ND

81.12

93.83

1.078

ND

6.58

ND

ND

(69)

River Ganges

At 27 locations in 1700 km stretch (2003)

Sediments (range of concentration)

18 -35

34,100 -46,200

0.41 1.31

121 200

44 -69

87 181

35 - 63

14.7 25.3

1150 3070

ND

ND

(89)

149


Location

In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


From the Asian continent, the Ganges River contributes a significant amount of sediments to the world’s ocean (89). Freshly deposited sediments of the Ganges River were analyzed from 27 locations along the 1700km long channel length. Baseline concentration of the river sediments was established for Cr 147 μg g-1, Mn 1,764 μg g-1, Fe 40,346 μg g-1, Co 19.2 μg g-1, Ni 47 μg g-1, Cu 55 μg g-1, Zn 105 μg g-1, Cd 0.58 μg g-1 and Pb 22 μg g-1dry mass for the River Ganges. Higher concentration of lithophile elements (Cr and Mn) than the world average indicates that the Ganges River basin receives contribution from basic rocks in crystalline zone of the Himalayan region (89). In the 700km long upper Ganges River segments (UGR), heavy metal profiles (except for Mn) show a distinct downstream decreasing trend due to physical sorting of river sediments. River sediments of the northern Indian craton are enriched in Cr, Fe, Co, Ni and Cu (89). In comparison to high sediment influx by the Himalayan Rivers, the northern Indian craton rivers play an insignificant role in heavy metal distribution at the regional level in the 1000 km long segment of the lower Ganges River (LGR) (89). Metal concentration increased in the clay size fraction by a factor of 1.5-2.5 as compared to the established baseline concentration in the Pollution> Pollution Threat ;http://nmcg.nic.in/ pollution.aspx (accessed on August 5, 2015). 21. CPCB. Environmental Standards/ Water Quality Criteria; http://cpcb.nic.in/ Water_Quality_Criteria.php (accessed on August 5, 2015) 22. Mallet, V. The Ganges: holy, deadly river - Pollution has turned the sacred waters into a lethal cocktail of industrial and human waste. Can the river be saved ? Financial Times, Feb. 13, 2015; http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/ dadfae24-b23e-11e4-b380-00144feab7de. html# slide0 (accessed on Feb. 27, 2015). 23. Yeung, L. W. Y.; Yamashita, N.; Taniyasu, S.; Lam, P. K. S.; Sinha, R. K.; Borole, D. V.; Kannan, K. A survey of perfluorinated compounds in surface water and biota including dolphins from the Ganges River and in other water bodies in India. Chemosphere 2009, 76, 55–62. 24. Contaminants of emerging environmental concern; Bhandari, A., Surampalli, R. Y., Adams, C. D., Champagne, P., Ong, S. K., Tyagi, R. D., Zhang, T. C., Eds.; American Society of Civil Engineers: U.S.A., 2009; p 490. 25. Malik, A.; Ojha, P.; Singh, K. P. Levels and distribution of persistent organochlorine pesticide residues in water and sediments of Gomti River (India)—a tributary of the Ganges River. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2009, 148, 21–35. 26. Mohan, R. S. L. Conservation and management of the Ganges River dolphin, Platanista gangetica, in India. In Biology and conservation of the river dolphins; Perrin, W. F., Brownell, R. L., Jr., Kaiya, Z., Jiankang, L., Eds.; Occasional papers of the IUCN/SSC; IUCN: Gland, Switzerland, 1989; Vol. 3, pp 64–69. 27. Das Gupta, S. P. Basin Sub-basin Inventory of Water Pollution: The Ganga Basin, Part II (Excluding the Yamuna Sub-basin); Assessment and Development Study of River Basin Series; ADSORBS/7/1982-83; Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution: New Delhi, 1984; pp 1−204. 28. Schwarzenbach, R. P.; Escher, B. I.; Fenner, K.; Hofstetter, T. B.; Johnson, C. A.; Gunten, U. V.; Wehrli, B. The Challanges of Micropollutants in Aquatic Systems. Science 2006, 313, 1072–1077. 29. Mathur, S. C. Pesticides Industry in India. Pestic. Inf. 1993, 19, 7–15. 30. Mathur, S. C. Pesticides Industry in India. Chemical Weekly 1998 May. 31. Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers (Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals), Govt. of India. Production and Availability of Pesticides; Report of the Standing committee on Chemicals and Fertilizers (2012−13); CC & F. No.36, Lok Sabha Secretariat: New Delhi, 2013; pp 1−49. 32. Sarkar, U. K.; Basheer, V. S.; Singh, A. K.; Srivastava, S. M. Organochlorine pesticide residues in water and fish samples: first report from rivers and streams of Kumaon Himalayan Region, India. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2003, 70, 485–493. 154 In Water Challenges and Solutions on a Global Scale; Loganathan, et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2015.


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