In the Classroom
Bridging the Cognitive-Affective Gap: Teaching Chemistry while Advancing Affective Objectives The Singapore Curricular Experience Kok Siang Tan,* Ngoh Khang Goh, and Lian Sai Chia Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616; *
[email protected] Advances in chemistry have made us either more comfortable or more uncomfortable. From domestic cleaning agents to sophisticated medicinal drugs, we have in one way or another benefited from the products and services of the chemical industry. On the other hand, the ways in which chemicals and chemical processes are managed can be controversial. Environmental pollution, chemical warfare, and depletion of supplies of fossil fuel are some negative impacts that often engender concern and criticism regarding the carelessness and ignorance of the same industry that generates revenue and helps improve the lives of many. While the chemical industry is a hugely successful and established sector of the global economy, the challenges it faces are beyond its research and technological advances, production cost and profit margins. There are also challenges to its credibility as an industry that cares for the environment and the communities that consume its products and services. The industry’s survival may then be illustrated as a two-part equation consisting of a techno-economic portion and the socio-credibility portion. It is true that technology and business factors in the equation are important. It is also true that skilled and talented professionals work in the chemical industry. Meeting the challenges posed by this part of the industry’s survival equation should not be much of a problem, however to sustain the credibility of the industry as a responsible partner in the community may not be an easy task. So how can industrialists, professionals, and educators ensure that the credibility portion of the equation is equally, if not better, attended to in the course of their work efforts? A story has been told about a president of a large multinational chemical company being invited to speak to a group of grade 10 students regarding the state of the chemical industry and the career opportunities it offers (1). As a chemical engineer himself, he was keen to convince the teenagers that besides good career prospects within the industry, there is also the altruistic role the industry plays in maintaining a healthy environment for the world to live in. Armed with figures and statistics, he thought he had convinced the teenagers, but at the end of the speech he was asked questions such as “[Sir,] how come the chemical industry continues to pollute the environment and why is the chemical industry producing toxins that contaminate the world?” Through media sources and the Internet, the students were aware of the problems of pollution around the world and were therefore unconvinced by the speaker’s presentation. There is certainly nothing wrong with the speaker’s approach and nothing wrong with the unconvinced student’s question. The point is not about how to win over these teenagers and local communities through figures and statistics. It is about how to earn
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the trust and respect of all stakeholders in the chemical industry—workers, consumers, communities, and government agencies (1). These stakeholders need to generally agree that the chemical industry makes a significant contribution to the economy and that the chemical industry is also deeply aware of the need to manage its materials and processes well so that potential hazards do not harm local and global communities. Convincing the stakeholders is a tough yet achievable task. Even when one generation is convinced of the economic benefits and responsible practices of the chemical industry, it is equally important that future generations will also share these convictions. Transparency in collecting, maintaining, and reporting industry data is one strategy to ensure that communities know the results of industry actions. Establishing a visual presence within the local community and initiating joint industry–community programs is another important strategy. Maintaining a good working relationship among stakeholders in the chemical industry fosters communication that can quickly address public concerns as they arise. The most important strategy, and an effective one too, is to develop and teach chemistry in a way that simultaneously engages the cognitive and affective learning experiences of the students. In the long term, these efforts should address the credibility portion of the industry’s survival equation since students are the ones who will lead our future communities. Rationale for Bridging Efforts in Chemistry Chemistry is an interesting subject, although some students find abstract aspects of the subject a hindrance to their motivation to learn, which can be a problem during assessment. For students to successfully understand and apply chemistry concepts, achieving cognitive objectives is important. With good pedagogy in chemistry classrooms and labs, we can produce capable students. Relying on developing students’ brains is insufficient, however. Schools need to also teach affective objectives of the chemistry curriculum so that students will develop an appreciation of chemistry and its relevance in their daily lives, even if they are not particularly successful in studying chemistry as a school subject. It is only through interplay of the cognitive and affective factors in the learning experiences of students that we can ultimately have knowledgeable and motivated citizens who understand the importance of chemistry in general, and the chemical industry specifically. Educators facing this curricular challenge can teach chemistry for academic excellence and separately offer enrichment programs that address affective objectives. Alternatively, they can choose to develop both the cognitive and affective
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aspects of the students’ learning experiences in chemistry at the same time by thoughtfully integrating enrichment activities into the academic curriculum. Given logistics imperatives and time constraints in schools, it is probably easier to teach cognitive and affective chemistry objectives separately. However, students’ learning experiences in the subject would be most deeply ingrained for future use if chemistry were taught with learning tasks and activities that develop both the learners’ intellectual abilities and motivation to learn at the same time. This approach is especially appropriate in Singapore because assessment remains an important issue in our examination-oriented curriculum. To meet these challenges, teachers have adopted bridging strategies in their classrooms and laboratories that incorporate affective learning opportunities with cognitive curricular content and assessment. Singapore has a well-established educational system that has enabled students to perform well on international examinations and studies on science education (2). There are many aspects of the chemistry curriculum in
Singapore schools where cognitive and affective objectives have been and can be delivered simultaneously. That is, while preparing students for national examinations, teachers also conduct activities and learning programs that incorporate some of the affective objectives mandated for the chemistry curriculum (3) in the Singapore National Education Program (4): List 1 illustrates some of these learning opportunities. Thus, by teaching chemistry lessons without separating cognitive and affective objectives, school graduates can be interested, well-informed citizens that responsibly participate in economic and public policy decision making. Some of these students will be the future talents working in the chemical industry. Chemical Education and the Chemical Industry in Singapore In Singapore, chemistry is taught in every secondary school and junior college as an independent subject (pure
List 1. Singapore’s National Education Messages and Related Chemistry Learning Activities The Six National Education Messages a
Chemistry Topic Examples of Learning Opportunities
Singapore is our homeland; this is where we belong.
Metals: Students take part in a chemistry lesson or project on alloys and the metals that go into making coins to learn more about the currency of their country. In doing so they also learn about their country’s history and national ideals as depicted in the images on the surfaces of the coins.
We must preserve racial and religious harmony.
Composition of clean dry air: Students are taught about the composition of clean dry air and how each gas contributes to the unique function of air in maintaining life on Earth. Singapore is a multi-ethnic country whose population is 78% Chinese, 14% Malay, 7% Indian and 1% people of other ethnic backgrounds. In understanding the relationship between the functions of air and its component gases, students can draw a parallel reference to Singapore’s population structure, especially in the important roles each ethnic group plays in the history and development of the country and how harmonious relationships among different ethnic and religious groups can ensure a happy and secure future for the entire nation.
We must uphold meritocracy and incorruptibility.
Laboratory practical work: Students are trained to conduct experiments so that they report experimental results accurately and honestly. They are also frequently taught to avoid plagiarism in scientific and project work reports.
No one owes Singapore a living.
Purification of water: Singapore is a water-scarce country. Instead of relying heavily on potable water purchased from neighboring countries, Singapore constantly looks into new ways to increase its potable water supply. Among the methods explored and implemented are wastewater reclamation, called NEWater in Singapore (5), and desalination of seawater. Chemistry teachers often cite the process of making NEWater when teaching the topic of purification.
We must ourselves defend Singapore.
Chemical energy: Whether chemicals are used or abused depends on the motivation behind the applications of chemicals and chemical processes. Students learn about various applications of chemicals and chemical processes through visits to petrochemical industries and doing projects on the destructive effects of chemical processes like exothermic reactions and factors affecting reaction speed.
We have confidence in our future.
Nonbiodegradable products: Students examine various household items (at home, in supermarkets, or at school) and identify those that are nonbiodegradable. They are then asked to explain why the chemical characteristics of these items make them nonbiodegradable and to suggest proper management of their use, re-use, and disposal so as to conserve the community’s living environment.
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chemistry) or as an integrated secondary school subject (with physics or biology). Students in these courses are mainly examined using syllabuses defined by both the University of Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate (England) and Singapore’s Ministry of Education (3). Upon graduation, students who opt to continue their chemical education in tertiary institutions have study choices ranging from chemical process industry and chemical engineering to biochemistry and medicinal chemistry at local polytechnics or universities. Upon graduation, many of these students are employed in the chemical industry or become chemistry teachers and educators. The growth of the chemical industry in Singapore started in the 1960s when major oil companies like Shell, Mobil, and Esso began their operations. This growth continued steadily into the 1970s and 1980s with the establishment of plants by other multinational chemical companies. In the 1990s, the Economic Development Board of Singapore created an integrated chemical hub on Jurong Island, a merger of several smaller islands in southern Singapore. That hub became home to many world-class chemical manufacturers and is predicted to grow even more rapidly in the new millennium (6). The chemical industry is now one of the important pillars supporting Singapore’s economy. This rapid growth indicates that chemical education in Singapore’s schools has been successful in educating students that are well-qualified to obtain employment in the chemical industry. To boost students’ learning experience in chemistry, chemical and material engineers have also been recruited as trained teachers in schools and junior colleges (7). The country’s commitment to the chemical industry and chemical education is further supported by the launch of the Singapore Chemical Industry Council’s Responsible Care Outreach Program in 1998. This program aims to improve students’ and teachers’ awareness and knowledge of chemicals, their understanding of chemical safety, and the usage of chemicals in our daily lives (8).
Pedagogy Integrating Cognitive and Affective Content Teaching and learning chemistry in Singapore classrooms and school laboratories includes cognitive and affective content conducted via two different approaches—by lessons based on a prescribed national examination syllabus, and through a range of enrichment activities and programs organized or undertaken by chemistry teachers. While schools elsewhere around the world undoubtedly also use this curricular strategy, we would like to highlight some of the unique bridging opportunities that the Singapore curriculum provides. Such learning opportunities allow students to bring together textbook information and their real life encounters with chemicals and chemical processes. List 2 illustrates how both cognitive and affective chemistry content can be integrated within the curricular approaches adopted by chemistry teachers in Singapore. The desired learning outcomes of the high school chemistry curriculum reflect coverage of the basic concepts in chemistry; many of these have direct technological relevance (3). Students with a good foundation in these basic chemistry concepts will understand how broad and far-reaching the efforts and effects of the chemical industry are in their daily lives. The junior college curriculum delves deeper into the understanding and applications of these concepts (3). As stated in the syllabus outlines, students are expected to make links between basic chemistry concepts and more advanced topics like biochemistry and chemical thermodynamics. Institutional assumptions anticipate that students of advanced chemistry would be more inclined towards a technological career when they progress into tertiary education and the world of work. Like most Asian societies, Singapore’s curriculum is significantly examination-focused. While understanding the career stakes of students at national examinations, educators in Singapore also recognize the need to cultivate an abiding interest and appreciation of the subject among the younger
List 2. Cognitive and Affective Curricular Efforts for Teaching Chemistry in Singapore Cognitive Curricular Requirements a
Affective Examples of Enrichment Activities
Technology Topics, Ordinary Level (High School) Course: Experimental chemistry; Electrolysis chemical reactions; Energy from chemicals; Extraction of metals; Organic chemistry
At a crystal-growing competition students learn the art and science of growing crystals and have an opportunity to demonstrate their creativity in growing something beautiful (9).
Technology Topics, Advanced Level (Junior College) Course: Chemical energetics; Chemical thermodynamics; Reaction kinetics; Electrochemistry; Biochemistry; Organic chemistry
Industrial and research attachment including field trips to Science Centers; Institutional Exchange Programs (10, 11) that will provide students with an early exposure to the methodology and techniques required in research (12).
Societal and Environmental Topics, Ordinary Level Course: Purification techniques; Acids, bases and salts; Atmospheric chemistry
Teachers incorporate content in their curriculum that supports topic statements of the National Education Messages (4, 13) (See also the examples described in List 3).
Societal and Environmental Topics, Advanced Level Course: Food chemistry; Biochemistry; Environmental chemistry; Waste management
Students engage in community involvement projects (14) and other community-related activities like educational programs on SARS prevention (15). These activities help students develop a sense of commitment to the community and the country and involve a whole-school approach.
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ref 3 for additional information.
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generation. Although the examination objectives may be laden with specific cognitive developmental statements, there are also broadly defined affective requirements (3). Teachers are encouraged to interpret these affective objectives and to craft learning opportunities for their students during their lessons. Some commonly observed activities that teachers use to integrate affective objectives with cognitive objectives in the chemistry curriculum are outlined in List 3. These bridging opportunities provide students with a coherent chemistry curriculum. Importance of Bridging the Cognitive-Affective Gap Students who find chemistry a difficult subject to study may end up not liking it. Losing their enthusiasm usually spells trouble for their examination grades, and, more importantly, these students may become ignorant of the effects of applied chemistry around the world today. Students who are successful in studying chemistry, on the other hand, may not necessarily find it meaningful, except in helping them further their educational or career pursuits. Narrowing the cognitive-affective gap in learning chemistry may help ease the perceived difficulties and irrelevance of studying chemistry among lower-performing students. Bridging cognitive and affective aspects of chemistry may also get students into the habit of relating life events to what they learn in school. Then, they may be more likely to understand and be receptive to policies and regulations put in place by authorities to address pressing societal problems or issues. Two recent examples highlight the importance of bridging this gap—the use of
chemicals as weapons in senseless attacks on innocent lives and the application of chemistry in life sciences to research the human genome and the emergence of deadly new diseases like SARS and avian influenza. Other effects of applied chemistry, such as environmental destruction resulting from insensitive use of chemicals and depleting sources of fossil fuel, are equally glaring examples. Policies and regulations formulated to address such issues are seldom palatable, especially to uninformed citizens and those with a bias against the policies. Examples of affective chemistry content need to be frequently discussed in class by chemistry teachers and educators so that students are exposed to some real-world learning experiences. They may then appreciate the full impact of these global events from a very young age. In Singapore, teachers are encouraged to constantly keep up-to-date with recent developments in the chemical industry and global events (13). In keeping students excited about what is happening in the chemical industry, teachers incorporate some of the latest technological and industrial developments into their chemistry lessons, for example, in wastewater reclamation (5). By being knowledgeable and updated in global events, teachers will also be better prepared to advise their students on career prospects. With the chemical industry playing a key role in Singapore’s economy, and chemistry being a highly regarded school subject, teachers are not just “teaching to the test”; they are equipping students with skills to use later either as professionals in the chemical industry (3) or as chemistry educators. To further enhance students’ chances to survive in the competitive economic and technological world, group project work at the junior col-
List 3. Examples of Learning Opportunities That Integrate Cognitive and Affective Chemistry Objectives Examples of Chemistry Curricular Objectives a
Examples of Related Chemistry Learning Opportunities
Affective: To stimulate students’ interest in the environment and to foster a caring attitude concerning environmental issues. Cognitive: To describe how the ease or difficulty of obtaining metals from their ores can be related to the positions of these metal elements in the reactivity series of the periodic table; to discuss the social, economic, and environmental advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals.
During a Community Involvement Program, CIP (14), students clean up a public beach, collecting and classifying the litter according to its material components. These data are collated and a reflective essay written to suggest the materials’ sources, disposal methods, and ways to reduce their harmful effects on the environment. (CIP requires each student to contribute six hours per school year working on a community project.)
Affective: To equip students with relevant and useful skills to pursue studies in applied sciences or in science-dependent vocational courses. Cognitive: To equip students with the necessary laboratory and experimental skills.
Students may participate in a number of science-related events, including a crystal-growing competition (9), the Singapore Youth Science Festival, the Science Research Program (12), the Technology and Engineering Research Program, and the Science Focus Program (11).
Affective: To help students identify possible benefits and harm that the use of science and technology may cause to individuals, communities, and the environment. Cognitive: To suggest suitable methods of water purification, given relevant information; to describe the role of nitrogenous fertilizers in promoting plant growth and increasing crop yield.
Educators incorporate principles from the National Education Messages (4) into the chemistry curriculum. Teachers often do so by including these pertinent examples: Singapore’s efforts to reclaim wastewater (the NEWater program, see List 1), and the intended use of ammonium compounds as explosive material in a foiled bomb attack in 2001 in Singapore (5,13).
Affective (junior college level): To prepare students for employment or further studies beyond college. Cognitive: To incorporate learning objectives from chemistry into other subject areas (e.g., humanities, commerce, etc.).
Interdisciplinary project work in junior colleges allows students to opt for chemistry as a subject in which to deal with a proposed problem. Project work assessment accounts for 10% of the entry criteria into local universities (16).
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lege level has become an essential criterion for entry into local universities. In post-secondary education, real-world, problem-based curricula are introduced in polytechnics and universities, and students are frequently crossing borders to gain wider global learning experiences via educational exchange programs (10).
lows accountability, yet it is when students make sense of their own learning experience by integrating instruction with reallife applications and events that the hard work of both teachers and students is really rewarded.
Constraints to Integrating Cognitive and Affective Objectives in Chemistry
1. Ho, P. President, Dow Chemical Pacific. Keynote address for the Asia Pacific Chemical Industry Meeting: Challenges Facing the Chemical Industry in Asia Pacific; February 15, 2000. http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:V5machHCYtcJ: www.silk.dow.com/dow_news/speeches/spe_ho.html+%22 Challenges+Facing+the+Chemical+Industry%22+2000&hl= en&lr=&strip=1 (accessed Oct 2005). 2. Toh, K. A.; Pereira-Mendoza, L. The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS): A Look at Singapore Students’ Performance and Classroom Practice; National Institute of Education: Singapore, 2000. 3. Ministry of Education, Examinations and Assessment Board: Syllabuses. http://www.seab.gov.sg (accessed Oct 2005). 4. Ministry of Education, National Education: Six Messages. http://www.moe.gov.sg/ne/aboutne/sixmsgs.htm (accessed Oct 2005). 5. Public Utilities Board, NEWater: Sustainable Water Supply. http://www.pub.gov.sg/NEWater_files/index.html (accessed Oct 2005). 6. Economic Development Board, Singapore, Industry Opportunities: Chemicals. http://www.sedb.com/edbcorp/sg/en_uk/index/industry_opp/chemicals.html (accessed Oct 2005). 7. Ministry of Education, Admission Criteria for Degree Holders. http://www.moe.gov.sg/teach/Degree.htm (accessed Oct 2005). 8. Singapore Chemical Industry Council, Responsible Care Outreach Program. http://www.scic.org.sg/rc/outreach1.asp (accessed Oct 2005). 9. National University of Singapore, Singapore National Crystal Growing Challenge. http://www.chemistry.nus.edu.sg/events/ncgc/ index.html (accessed Oct 2005). 10. Nanyang Technical University, Global Immersion Program. http://www.ntu.edu.sg/gip/GIP_2005/index.htm (accessed Oct 2005). 11. Raffles Junior College, Science Research Program. http:// schools.moe.edu.sg/rjc/subjects/science/enrichment.html (accessed Oct 2005). 12. National University of Singapore, NUS Science: Science Research Programme (SRP). http://www.science.nus.edu.sg/schools/ srp/ (accessed Oct 2005). 13. Tan, K. S.; Chin, L. F. Infusing National Education and Issues of National Concern into the Chemistry Curriculum. In Securing Our Future: Sourcebook for National Education Ideas and Strategies for Secondary Schools and Junior Colleges, Tan, K. S. S., Goh, C. B., Eds.; Pearson Prentice Hall: Singapore, 2003; pp 172–188. 14. Ministry of Education, Community Involvement Programme. http://www.moe.gov.sg/ne/cip/community.htm (accessed Oct 2005). 15. Ministry of Education, SARS Web site. http://www.moe.gov.sg/ sars/ (accessed Oct 2005). 16. Ministry of Education, Project Work. http://www.moe.gov.sg/ projectwork/ (accessed Oct 2005).
Chemistry teachers face constraints when trying to integrate cognitive and affective objectives. Teaching students the properties and benefits of elements and compounds and their related chemical processes is easy and straightforward, yet to relate these to daily life experiences may not be that clear. For instance, topics on chemical reactions and chemical energy may be readily related by the teacher to depletion of fossil fuels or to commercial products like self-heating food packs or luminescent light sticks. What about chemical industrial accidents and the use of chemicals as weapons of mass destruction? Teachers may attempt to relate their lessons to cultural and national issues as these have taken on new meanings following the September 11, 2001 events and the clampdown of terrorism-related activities in Southeast Asia. Questions about possible threats to national security from chemical warfare and infectious disease pandemics as well as other dire repercussions of global events need to be asked. Teachers and students should reflect on possible responses to these questions together before other similar events occur. Teachers should be prepared to help children make sense of a changed world when things do happen. Teaching children about the possibilities of cataclysm may undermine their innocence, yet to neglect this opportunity of educating them may deny them a secure future. One approach is to infuse the awareness of these opportunities and threats into the very core of the school curriculum—particularly through teaching chemistry (13). News coverage of chemical industrial accidents, such as a gas leak, a mine explosion, or a fire at an oil refinery may be used to illustrate the potential harmful effects that chemicals or chemical processes can have on humanity and the environment. Similarly, harmful exploitations by terrorists in the use of hazardous chemicals or chemical processes may create similar havoc. Through thoughtful lesson planning that endeavors to integrate cognitive and affective objectives, chemistry teachers can educate students to be knowledgeable about chemical concepts, processes, and the benefits of responsible practices by the chemical industry while also being aware, concerned, and prepared to act against hazards posed by the chemical industry or threats of chemical terrorism. Conclusion Chemical education has strong support in Singapore, emanating from education agencies and institutions, and the chemical industry, which has remained a substantial pillar of the nation’s economy. Singapore’s curricular experience in chemical education provides an example of how cognitive and affective educational objectives can be integrated and effectively presented to the students. Learning for assessment al-
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Literature Cited
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