Brominated Flame Retardants: Spatial and ... - ACS Publications

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Chapter 2

Brominated Flame Retardants: Spatial and Temporal Trends in the Environment and Biota from the Pacific Basin Countries Prasada Rao S. Kodavanti*,1 and Bommanna G. Loganathan2 1Toxicity

Assessment Division, NHEERL/ORD, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, United States 2Department of Chemistry and Watershed Studies Institute, Murray State University, 1201 Jesse D. Jones Hall, Murray, Kentucky 42071, United States *E-mail: [email protected]

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are used as additive or reactive components in a variety of polymers including high-impact polystyrene and epoxy resins, commercial products such as computers, electronics and electrical equipment, thermal insulation, textiles and furniture foam. There were over 75 different BFRs in the market; some of them were restricted/banned from production and use due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation and toxic effects on organisms. Of the many BFRs still on the market, brominated bisphenols, decabrominated diphenyl ethers, and cyclododecanes are three major classes which represent the highest production volumes. Recent studies have revealed that environmental contamination and toxic health effects by high production volume BFRs continues to be of concern. Trend monitoring studies are useful in understanding the historical perspectives, current status and also help to predict future trends of environmental contamination by these compounds. This chapter deals with the environmental contamination status and temporal trends of polybrominated diphenylethers in a © 2016 American Chemical Society Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

variety of environmental and biological matrices, including soil, sediment, wildlife, marine and terrestrial mammals from Pacific Basin countries.


Introduction Persistent Organic Chemicals (POCs) are synthetic chemicals, either intentionally or unintentionally produced/released into the environment (1). Some of the POCs are pesticides while others are industrial products or unintended by-products resulting from industrial processes (combustion) or from consumer products (Figure 1). POCs remain in the environment for extended periods of time and several factors can contribute to a compound’s persistence in the ecosystem. POCs resist degradation through natural processes and can become concentrated in sediment, water or air. These compounds can be volatile (i.e. can vaporize in the air) or travel by water currents through the process of evaporation and re-deposition. These traits allow POCs to be transported over long distances, far from the original source of contamination. One of the main characteristics of POCs is that they build up in the fatty tissue of living organisms, with serious consequences for humans and wildlife. This affinity for lipid rich tissue allows these compounds to accumulate, persist due to their resistance to biological degradation, and bioconcentrate in biological tissues and biomagnify in the foodchain. Consequently, even though the level of exposure may be limited, POCs can eventually reach toxicologically relevant concentrations. Because of their ability to accumulate inside an organism, to be transported long-range, to persist in the environment, and to be toxic, POCs are considered a global threat. POCs are also known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Figure 1 shows the chemical structures of some of the legacy, unintentionally produced POCs (polychlorinated dibenzo- dioxins and furans) and emerging compounds of concern. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) belong to a class of compounds known as organohalogens most of which are highly persistent in the environment (1–3). BFRs are currently the largest marketed flame retardant group due to their high performance efficiency and low cost. In the commercial market, more than 75 different BFRs are recognized. Some BFRs, such as the polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), were removed from the market in the early 1970s after an incidental poisoning resulted in the loss of livestock due to the ingestion of PBB-contaminated animal feed, which demonstrated the toxicity of this BFR class (4). Tris (2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate, commonly known as “Tris”, is another BFR that was removed from children’s clothing, including pajamas, due to its mutagenic and nephrotoxic effects (5). Of the BFRs still on the market, brominated bisphenols, decabrominated diphenyl ethers, and cyclododecanes are three major classes which represent the highest production volumes. These BFRs are used as additive or reactive components in a variety of polymers such as high-impact polystyrene and epoxy resins, which are then used in commercial products such as computers, electronics and electrical equipment, thermal insulation, textiles and furniture foam. 22 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Figure 1. Chemical structures of some of the legacy, unintentionally produced POCs and emerging compounds of concern. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) constitute an important group of flame retardants (Figure 1). PBDEs were added to consumer products to prevent them from catching fire or delay the ignition process if exposed to flame or heat. PBDEs are added to plastics, upholstery, fabrics and foams and are in common products such as computers, television sets, mobile phones, furniture, and carpet pads. Nearly 90% of electrical and electronic appliances contain PBDEs and the Bromine Science and Environmental Forum (BSEF) claims that adding flame retardants gives 15 times greater escape time in case of a fire (6). Although PBDEs are ubiquitous, they are primarily considered as indoor pollutants based on human exposure scenarios. They leach into the environment when household wastes decompose in landfills or are incompletely incinerated. Human health concerns stem from the fact that PBDEs are persistent, bioaccumulative and structurally related to PCBs (Figure 1). PBDE concentrations are rapidly increasing in the global environment and in human blood, breast milk, liver, as well as other fatty tissues. However, in defined areas like the European Union, PBDEs are leveling off or declining due to regulations on these compounds (7). Although these 23 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


chemicals are ubiquitous in the environment and bioaccumulate in wildlife and humans, information on their potential toxic effects are now accruing (8–12). Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA; Figure 1) is a reactive BFR found in printed circuit boards and is added to several types of polymers. TBBPA is highly lipophilic (log Kow [octanol-water partition coefficient] = 4.5) and has low water solubility (0.72 mg/ml). TBBPA has been measured in the air (13), soil and sediment (14), but is generally not found in water samples. Unlike most of the PBDEs, TBBPA has a relatively short elimination half-life of about 2-4 days in blood and 3 weeks in adipose tissue of humans, and about 0.5 days in serum and 3 days in adipose tissue of adult rats (15). Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD; Figure 1) is a non-aromatic brominated cyclic alkane, mainly used as an additive flame retardant in thermoplastic polymers with final applications in styrene resins (16). Like other BFRs, HBCD is highly lipophilic, with a log Kow of 5.6 and has low water solubility (0.0034 mg/L) (17). Studies have shown that HBCD is highly persistent, with a half-life of 3 days in air and 2,025 days in water (18), and is bioaccumulative with a bioconcentration factor of approximately 18,100 in fathead minnows (19). Although we discuss some aspects of new/emerging BFRs in general, the contamination status and temporal trends of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are discussed at length in this chapter.

Sources and Environmental Contamination of BFRs Industrial scale production of PBDEs began in 1976 (20). Commercial formulations of PBDEs include, penta-, octa-, and deca-BDEs and their bromine content was about 71%, 79% and 83%, respectively. In 2004, severe restrictions were placed on the production of PBDEs. Prior to 2004, about 95% of penta-BDE was used as an additive flame retardant in polyurethane foam materials used in seat cushions, bedding mattresses, furniture etc. Octa-BDE was used as an additive flame retardant in plastics that are used for the manufacture of office equipment and computer casings. Deca-BDE was used in a variety of plastics and polystyrene used in the manufacture of televisions, mobile phones, audio-video equipment, and several other plastic materials. Since PBDEs are used as additive flame retardants and are not chemically bound to the materials, PBDEs easily escape the matrix via volatilization into the air. Environmental contamination can occur during the disposal of electronic waste via leaching and volatilization. E-waste recycling locations in Asian countries have been identified as major sources of PBDEs (21). Lower brominated PBDEs (mono-, to hexa- bromine substituted) that are present in both vapor and particulate matter are transported long distances (long-range transport) from the source. In the United States, waste water treatment plants (WWTP) and landfills are considered point sources of PBDEs entering the environment (22). High concentrations of PBDEs found in WWTP effluents and sludge may contaminate agricultural land as they are used as fertilizer. Over half of the sewage sludge produced annually in the USA is applied to land as fertilizer (23). Thus, application of sewage sludge may represent a source of exposure to humans and wildlife through direct contact or uptake by plants. Due to the hydrophobic nature, PBDEs tend to adsorb strongly 24 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


to sediments, soils and suspended materials in water, thus facilitating their transfer to aquatic biota. A survey of US foods showed that PBDE levels were highest in fish (median: 1,725 pg/g), followed by meat (283 pg/g), and lowest in dairy products (31.5 pg/g) (24). Significant levels of PBDEs may be found in outdoor air, even at rural locations. PBDE concentrations in indoor measures were 15–20 times higher than in outdoor air (25). PBDEs also enter coastal waters through industrial and municipal waste water outfalls, landfill leachate and atmospheric deposition from various sources (26, 27). TBBPA, a compound used for many years in plastics and known to have numerous endocrine disrupting effects in humans, rodent research models, and wildlife. TBBPA is a high volume production flame retardant used in electrical equipment, plastics, and home furnishings (sofas, chairs, carpeting), and is currently the most widely used BFR in the world (28). It is typically detected in house dust (29) and inhalation is thought to be a major route of exposure to humans. People working as computer technicians, in electronics dismantling, and smelting have been reported to have elevated blood TBBPA levels compared to measures reported for the general population (30). In fact, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) tested over 650 foodstuffs for TBBPA and found it to be non-quantifiable, even in fish and related products (31). However, others have measured TBBPA in fish and drinking water, human serum and breast milk (32, 33), and its disposition in the rat has been characterized (34). TBBPA is not currently on the list of chemicals for biomonitoring in the U.S. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is a brominated flame retardant (Figure 1). It is used in polystyrene foam thermal insulation in buildings. Other uses include automobile interior textiles, car cushions, upholstered furniture and insulation blocks in trucks, packaging materials, and housing for electric and electronic equipment. HBCD is produced in China, Europe, Japan, and the USA. The known current annual production is approximately 28,000 tons per year (35). HBCD’s toxicity and its harm to the environment are currently under investigation. HBCD has been detected in environmental samples such as birds, mammals, fish and other aquatic organisms as well as soil and sediment (36). HBCD has been detected in workplace air samples at levels up to 1,400 μg/kg in dust (37). Diet is considered an important source for HBCD exposure (38), especially for humans consuming large quantities of fish, which reportedly contains relatively high HBCD levels (1,110 ng/g lipid) (39, 40). In addition to diet, house dust is probably another important source of human exposure, since dust consists of high levels of HBCD (41).

Status and Trends of PBDEs in Pacific Basin Countries Sediments Sediments serve as sources and sinks for a variety of POPs, including PBDEs. PBDEs have been detected in the sediments of Great Lakes (42–45) and in coastal marine sediments of North America (46). In the Great Lakes, total PBDE concentrations in surface sediments ranged from 10 to 236 ng/g dry wt., with PBDE 209 contributing to major proportions (from 8.9 to 230 ng/g 25 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


(47). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)’s Mussel Watch Project collected surface sediments throughout the U.S. coast (46) and showed that high levels of PBDEs were found in densely populated and industrial areas, such as Marina del Rey in California (88 ng/g dry wt). Relatively high PBDE concentrations have been reported in sediments collected from urban and industrial areas in Australia (4.71 ± 12.6 ng/g d.wt.) (48), Tokyo Bay, Japan, and in the Pearl River Delta, China (Figure 2a, 2b) (49, 50).

Figure 2a. Temporal trends of PBDEs in sediment cores from USA and Canada. Data: Lake Ontario (44) (ng/g dry wt. Data estimated from figure). Lake Michigan and Lake Erie (45) (ng/g wet wt. Data estimated from figure).

26 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


Sediment cores have been used to reconstruct the history of contamination by persistent organic pollutants (51). Figure 2a shows PBDEs concentrations determined in sediment cores collected from the Great Lakes and provided information on the doubling time, inventory, surface flux, and loading rates of PBDEs in sediment (42–45, 47). Qiu et al. described temporal trends of PBDE-209 and tPBDE (PBDE3-7 , i.e. sum of PBDE congeners with three to seven bromines: BDE-28, -47, -49, -99, -100, -116, -153, -154, -181, and 183 which mainly come from the penta- and octa- BDE products) flame retardants in a sediment core from Lake Ontario (44). Zhu and Hites traced the temporal trends of BFRs in sediment cores from Lakes Michigan and Erie (45). They showed temporal trends of PBDE-209 and other PBDEs (tPBDE: sum of BDE-17, -28, -47, -49, -66, -71, -85, -99, -100, -138,- 153, -154, -183, -190, -206) in sediment cores (Figure 2a). Hites reported that total concentrations of PBDEs (excluding PBDE-209) and PBDE-209 increased annually since the 1980s with the doubling time of PBDE-209 in sediments from Lakes Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario of 19, 10, 10, and 13 years, respectively (47). Drage et al. reported a large increase in all PBDEs between 1980 and 2014 in sediment cores collected from the Sydney estuary in Australia (Figure 2b) (52). This trend was particularly prominent for PBDE-209, which was found in surface sediment at an average concentration of 42 ng/g dry wt. (21-65 ng g. d.wt) (52). tPBDE trend include sum of six BDE congeners (BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -and 183) (52). Sediment cores collected from Pacific basin countries showed that PBDE levels have been increasing annually, but at different rates (i.e., doubling times) (Figure 2b). PBDE-209, as the major component (>96%) of the deca-BDE technical mixture (49, 53), was also shown to increase in sediment cores in these countries. As shown in Figure 2b, the highest concentrations of PBDE-209 were found in sediment samples collected from Asia. Sediment cores collected from the Pearl River Delta in China (50) showed that PBDE-209 concentrations remained similar until 1990, and then increased notably, with a doubling time of 3–6 years, reflecting the high market demand for deca-BDE mixture after 1990 in China. The elevated concentrations of PBDE-209 in sediment suggests its high production and usage, and high Kow value (octanol-water partition coefficients, log Kow ~10), resulting in preferential partitioning to the sinking sediment particles. In addition, PBDE-47, -99, -153, and -154 have also been frequently reported in sediments.



Figure 2b. Temporal trends of PBDEs in sediment cores from the Asia/Pacific region. Data: Tokyo Bay (49), Pearl River estuary, South China (50) and Sydney harbor, Australia (52) (ng/g dry wt. data estimated from figure).

Soil and House Dust In the United States, concentrations of PBDE in floodplain soils from Michigan ranged from 0.02 to 55.1 ng/g d.wt (54). In China, a low PBDE concentration (0.01 ng/g dry wt) was detected in surface soils from the Tibetan Plateau (55) and high concentrations (~2700 ng/g) were found in soils collected near E-waste dismantling sites in Guangdong (56). Since PBDEs are added to plastics, upholstery, fabrics and foams and in common products such as computers, television sets, mobile phones, furniture, and carpet pads etc., they are primarily considered as indoor pollutants based on human exposure scenarios. Concentrations of PBDEs in house dust are much higher than in soil or sediment. House dust samples from North America had the highest PBDE levels (thousands of nanogram per gram), followed by dust samples from Eastern Asia and Australia (Figure 3). Relatively high PBDE levels were reported in dust collected from 28 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


houses and garages (57), television sets (300 μg/g and 72 μg/g) (58, 59), houses with several computers (6 μg/g) (59), and an E-waste recycling area (60) (Figure 3) (61–67).

Figure 3. PBDE concentrations (ng/g dry weight) in house dust and outdoor dust from several countries in the Pacific Basin. Median values (mean value was used when median value was not available) from References: Canada (61, 62); China (59); Japan (63); Singapore (64); Australia (65, 66); the United States (57, 62, 65–67). (Adapted/Reproduced with permission from Ref # (3), 2012, the Taylor and Francis Group LLC Books).

Wild Life Species Mussels Mussels and oysters are considered sentinel organisms and are widely used to assess spatial distribution and temporal trends of PBDEs in coastal environments in the United States and Asia (46, 68–70). The NOAA’s Mussel Watch Program reported a concentration range of PBDEs in mussels and oysters, from 1 to 270 ng/g lipid wt (46). Mean PBDE concentrations of mussels collected from San Francisco Bay were 2380 ng/g lipid wt (71). deBruyn et al. (2009) reported that concentrations of PBDEs in mussels collected near a municipal outfall in British Columbia were higher than in a reference area, with median values of 1000 and Philippines > India.

Temporal Trends of PBDEs in Marine Mammals Trend monitoring data are useful to understand the fate of PBDEs in open ocean ecosytems, a remote area from where these compounds are produced and used. Several studies have reported temporal trends of PBDEs in marine mammals (Table 2). No clear trend was found for PBDE concentrations in California sea lions collected during 1993–2006 from the California coast (121, 124), in sea otter livers collected during 1992–2002 from the California coast (125), in harbor seals collected during 1991–2005 from California (121). She et al. observed an increasing trend of PBDEs in harbor seal blubber from 1989 to 1998 with concentrations ranging from 0.09-8.3 µg/g lipid wt (126). Total PBDE concentrations increased by 10-fold in ringed seals collected during 1981–2000 from the Canadian Arctic (127) and in bottlenose dolphin collected during 1993–2004 from Florida coast, United States (79). PBDE concentrations in Guiana dolphin collected during 1993–2004 from Southeast Brazil showed increasing concentrations with time (130). 34 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

35


Table 2. Temporal trends of PBDEs in marine mammals from Pacific Basin

*

Location

Marine mammal

ΣPBDE Range (µg/g. lipid wt.)

Trend

Ref.

Florida coast, USA

Bottlenose dolphin

0.03-4.5

Increased with doubling time of 3-4 years between 1993-2004

(79)

California, USA

California Sea lion

0.45-4.74*

No clear trend, 1993-2003

(124)

California, USA

California, Sea lion

0.04-33.7*

No clear trend, 1994-2006

(121)

San Francisco Bay, USA

Harbor seal

0.09-8.3

Increased, 1989-1998

(126)

Arctic Canada

Ringed seal (male)

0.5-4.6**


(127)

Southeast Brazil

Guiana dolphin

0.01-1.6


(130)

Hong Kong, China

Indo-Pacific dolphin

0.10-51

No trend, 1997-2008

(128)

Taiji, Japan

Striped dolphin

0.01-0.09


(131)

Pacific coast, Japan

Melon-headed whales

0.02-0.5


(132)

South China sea

Finless porpoise

0.08-1.0


(133)

Pacific coast, Japan

Northern fur seal

0.0003-0.1

Reached peak (1991-94) and decreased 50% (1998)

(120)

µg/g wet wt.

**

ng/g lipid wt.

Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.


A few studies showed decreasing PBDE concentrations in marine mammals after 2000. PBDE concentrations in archived blubber tissues of Northern fur seals from Sanriku, Japan, increased during 1972–1994 sampling (about 150 times in 1994 to that in 1972), and then decreased by 50% during 1997–1998 sampling (120). The available data indicated that PBDE concentrations in marine mammals increased from the 1970s to the mid-1990s in the Pacific Basin. A decreasing trend of PBDEs in marine mammals from the coast of Japan after the late 1990s may be due to the earlier restriction on the usage of penta- and octa-PBDE formulations. Further studies are needed to evaluate the trends of PBDEs in North America after restrictions have been imposed on the production of PBDEs since the mid-2000s. Moreover, time-trend studies are needed in Asia (especially China and India), as the economies of these countries are increasing considerably and there has been a heavy demand for PBDEs in Asia in recent years. As stated in earlier sections, PBDEs are used in the manufacture of electronic equipment and therefore, electronic waste (e-waste) disposal has led to serious environmental problems by PBDEs in developing countries. It was estimated that 50-80% of the e-waste generated in the United States are exported to Asia, mainly China (133). and 60-75% of the e-waste generated in EU is exported to Asia and Africa. Significant quantities of e-waste are also exported to India, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, and Vietnam etc. Therefore, it is expected that the environmental levels of PBDEs and other flame retardants may continue to increase in future in countries in these Asia/Pacific region. Terrestrial Mammals Like organochlorines, PBDEs are lipophilic and hydrophobic compounds and readily bioaccumulate into aquatic and terrestrial organisms. PBDEs were detected in human specimens such as serum, adipose tissue and breast milk. Studies have shown that PBDE levels in human samples from North America are much higher (10-100 times) than the levels reported for Asia (135, 136). Hites performed meta-analysis of the human biomonitoring data for Asia and America and showed median PBDE levels of 3.5, 40 ng/g lipid wt. respectively (135). Temporal trend studies of PBDEs in human tissue samples from the USA and Asia are limited. PBDE concentrations in breast milk collected from Osaka, Japan during 1973-2000 (137) reached their peak in 1998 (2.3 ng/g lipid wt.) and then stabilized. However, human adipose tissue collected between 1970 and 2000 from Tokyo showed a 40-fold increase in concentration (0.03-1.3 ng/g lipid wt.) during that period (138). In contrast, no temporal variation was observed in breast milk samples from Brisbane, Australia. Average PBDE concentrations in breast milk collected in 2003 and2007 were 10.2 and 10 ng/g lipid wt. respectively (139). Dye et al. determined PBDEs in the serum of domestic cats (140). PBDEs were found in all cats, with mean PBDE concentrations of 4.3 and 10.5 ng/mL for young and old cats, respectively. PBDEs-47, -99, -207, and -209 were the dominant congeners. Liang et al. found very high concentrations of PBDEs in various tissues of foraging hens from an e-waste recycling area in South China (141). The highest PBDE concentrations were found in muscle (18,000 ng/g lipid wt), followed by fat, intestine, heart, liver, oviduct, gizzard, blood, skin, and ovum 36 Loganathan et al.; Persistent Organic Chemicals in the Environment: Status and Trends in the Pacific Basin Countries II ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2016.

(125 ng/g lipid wt). PBDE-209 was found in all samples (33–18,000 ng/g lipid wt) and was the dominant congener. PBDEs were also found in captive giant and red pandas from China (142). Total PBDE concentrations in panda ranged from 16.4 to 2160 ng/g lipid wt. PBDE-209 was the most abundant congener, followed by PBDEs-206, -207, -203, -47, and -153 (142).


Summary and Conclusions PBDEs are widespread and are detectable in various environmental media (air, water and food) and biota (aquatic and terrestrial animals including human blood, breast-milk, and fetuses) of Pacific Basin countries. As flame retardants, PBDEs were thought to save lives by reducing fire. However, the increasing levels of PBDEs in the environment associated with its potential toxicity to biota present an emerging risk for environment and human health. In May 2009, the commercial penta- and octa-PBDE mixtures have been added to the list of POPs by the United Nations Stockholm Convention. Commercial penta- and octa-PBDE mixtures were banned in the Europe and the United States. This is reflected in some samples, with concentrations being stable or in slow decline. However, e-waste containing PBDEs and other flame retardants disposal has led to serious emerging new environmental problems in the Asia/Pacific countries. The global release of PBDEs through e-waste disposal is estimated to be at least 20,000 metric tons per year with China accounting for 14,000 metric tons annually143. Global scale regulations, modernization of e-waste recycling processes and strategies for management of e-waste are needed to control the emission and to protect the environment, wildlife and human health.

Acknowledgments Authors thank Dr. Kevin Miller of Murray State University, Murray, KY and Dr. Riyaz Basha of University of North Texas Health Sciences Center, Fort Worth, TX for their excellent comments on an earlier version of this chapter. Authors also thank Mr. John Havel for excellent graphic assistance. The contents of this article has been reviewed by the National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory of the US Environmental Protection Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Agency nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

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