THE JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEiMISTRY
972
Apart from the metallurgical side, vanadium has suffered very little technological development. An element as chemically active and as remarkable in its varying properties as vanadium would undoubtedly find useful application in chemical technology. As an example may be suggested its use as an oxidizing catalyst in the manufacture of perchlorates and perborates, and in several organic reactions. The use of vanadyl chloride as reducer in place of stannous chloride, and of its oxygenating compounds as a bactericide in water purification may be mentioned. The strong physiological activity of vanadium will also some day be utilized in the manufacture of compounds similar
Vol. 14, No. 10
to the arseno compounds, such as salvarsan. It would appear that an element capable of easy transference of valency as vanadium would open some field of research in its application to the use of electric cells, primary or secondary. The potential difference between the low and high valency compounds as measured by Marino seems to indicate that a research in this direction might be very fruitful. It is clear from these few examples that the chemical development of vanadium is still ahead of us, and it is to be hoped that its success in steel metallurgy will be the factor toward its wide application in other branches of technology.
Can We Afford t h e Ford?’ By George Granger Brown DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITYO F MICHIGAN, ANN ARROR, MICHIGAN
F the 1 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0
The averase Ford touring car, driven under aoerage conditions, sary that all of these factors motor vehicles in the gives not more than 17.5 mi. per gal. Compared with other cars receive the most careful atit should gioe 24 mi. per gal. United States about tention. The high cost of One cause for this ineficiency is the present carbureting system, fuel in Europe- has forced 5,000,000 are Fords. If each which can be so improved that the averabe Ford, driven under average European manufacturers to Ford covers annually 5000 conditions, will give 25 mi. per gal. and operate as economically as consider these factors, and mi., we have 25,000,000,000 more expensioe cars. Ford miles per year. At an they have brought forth a If this one improoement were applied to all the Ford cars in this number of very light cars average of about 17.5 mi. per country, 400,000,000 gal. of gasoline would be saved annually. gal. this means a consumption equipped with efficient power plants of 12 to 20 h. p. o f over 1,400,000,000 gal. of These cars will run from gasoline, more than onefourth the total production of this country. Even a small sav- 35 to 60 mi. per gal., depending upon conditions. Because ing in the fuel consumption of Ford cars alone is well worth of the low price of gasoline in the United States our motor the effort. $very general increase of 10 per cent in the efficiency cars are not designed for maximum economy. We have light of Fords means more than 140,000,000 gal. of gasoline saved cars with inefficient power plants and some cars with efficient annually for future use, more than $30,000,000 to help pay the power plants handicapped by a 4000- or 5000-lb. mass of dead income tax, or, if you have the sales point of view, 75,000 more weight. In order to make intelligent comparisons of the relative Fords sold per year. The tests described in this paper indicate that the above operating economy of different cars, the variable weight and different designs must be reduced to a constant common basis. This estimates based on a saving of 10 per cent are very conservativein fact a t least 25 per cent increased mileage should be expected can be done in a very satisfactory manner. The wind resistance of all cars is practically the same. The by making the slight changes in equipment suggested. rolling resistance, and particularly the force necessary for acIn making comparative tests on motor cars the utmost care celeration, is directly proportional to the weight of the car. must be taken to maintain all conditions, except those purposely The efficiency inherent in the power plant varies inversely as the varied, as constant as possible; otherwise the results are absolutely displacement of the engine per unit of distance traveled. worthless. It is possible to obtain anywhere from 5 to 35 mi. These factors may be represented as follows:2 per gal. with the same standard equipped Ford touring car, deN = Number of cylinders pending entirely upon the conditions under which the car is = Bore. in i n . B A = Aiii’of-bore, sq. in. driven. In one case the car was driven through very heavy S = Stroke, in in. - “ . ~ city traffic in cold weather by an “experienced” but very inexpert H. p. =Horse power, 2.5 driver, in the other case the car was driven by a very careful D = Total displacement, 7 ANS expert driver, at a constant speed of about 10 mi. per hr. on a level = concrete highway, on a hot humid day. The careless driver R = Gear ratio, rear axle T = Tire used a rich mixture, the careful driver drove a hot engine with a 1056 Wh = R. p. m . rear wheel @ 1 mi. per hr., very lean mixture-so lean that the engine would backfire when Tire dia. X T M = R. p. rn. motor @ 1 mi. per hr.. Wh X R an attempt was made to accelerate. Wt. = Weight of car, in Ibs. 1000 c = Economy constant, For the present discussion it will be convenient to consider ~ D M ( I O O+ O wt.) the over-all efficiency of a motor car as consisting of two factors, G = Mi. per _gal, under reasonably efficient operating conditions, 5ZOU the efficiency of the power plant, and the drag of the chassis and ~ D M ( ~ O+ OO wt.) body. The power plant efficiency is determined by the design of the engine and transmission, and the effectiveness and effiThe accompanying table shows the application of this formula ciency of the ignition and carbureting systems. The drag, or to a number of standard cars produced in 1921. dead load, of the chassis and body is roughly a function of the This table is intended simply as an estimate of the miles per car weight. In order to get the best possible results it is neces-
0
p
Received June 29. 1922.
2 See also C . T. Myers, Trans. Soc. Automotive Eng., 121 9 (19141, 122, and Soc. Automolwe Eng. Bull., 8 (1915), 257.
THE JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIA
Oct., 1922
CAR MODEL H.P. N 25 American. ........................ C 6 18 4 22-34-37 Buick ............................ 22-44-47 6 27 Buick ............................ 31 8 .61 Cadillac' .......................... 6-30 Chalmers ......................... 25 6 Chandler.. ....................... six 6 29 Chevrolet ......................... 490 4 21 4 24 Dodge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 29 Dort ............................. 19 4 18 Essex ........ 4 22 Ford. T 6 25 Franklin, .... 9B 6 29 Haynes. .......................... 55 29 _. 6 Hudson, .......................... 16 4 Hupmobile ........................ R. 8 36 Lincoln'. .................... 6 48 Locomobile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 6 33 Marmonl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4 ... 21 Maxwell. .................... 6 48 TV McFarland ........................ 22 5 4 Mercer, .......................... F50 6 29 Mitchell. ......................... 25 682 6 Nash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 41-4 4 Nash ............................. 6 19 6-44 Oakland ......................... 4 21 43-A Oldsmobile ........................ 8 26 Oldsmobile ........................ 46 4 18 4 Overland ......................... 6 27 Packard-single .................... 43 12 Packard-twin six. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 6 644 Paige. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6 666 Paige . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 33 48 Pierce Arrows.. . . . . . . . . . T 6B 24 6 Reo .............................. 22 4 Stevens ........................... Stevens.... ....................... SkL4 23 6 Studebaker-Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 6 Studebaker-Specialz.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 36 Studebaker-Big2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 20 21 4 Willys Knight.. 1 Gear ratio rear axle not certain. 2 Gear ratio rear axle unknown.
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...
... ...
... ...
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B A 31/4 8.296 33/8 8.946 33's,' 8.946 31:', 7.67 3'/4 8.926 31/2 9.621 311 in10 68 37/s 11179 3'/a 9.621 33,'s 8.946 38/4 11.04 31/4 8.296 3'/2 9.621 31/2 9.621 3'/s 8.296 33/3 8.946 41/2 1 5 . 9 38/4 11.04 35/s 10.32 4l/2 1 5 . 9 3a/4 11.04 31/2 9.621 31/4 8.296 3a/s 8.946 21a/16 6.213 311 16 10 68 27/8 6:492 as/, 8.946 38/g 8.946 3 7.069 31/4 8.296 33/4 11.04 4 12.57 3s/io 7.98 33/4 11.04 31/8 7.67 31/2 9.621 37/s 11.79 3S/s 10.32
gallon obtained with different cars driven with the same operating efficiency, and should not be used unless this condition is fulfilled. A large number of tests have demonstrated the fundamental accuracy of these estimates as a basis for comparing the operating efficiencies. The reasonable mileage, of a Ford touring car is given as 24.5 mi. per gal., yet the average obtained throughout the country -isnot more than 17.5. The latter, for example, would correspond to 12 mi. per gal. for a Franklin, Essex, or a Dort. Franklin cars will average about 18 or 19 mi. per gal. It is just as easy to .get 25 mi. per gal. from a Ford as 19 mi. from a Franklin, yet it is not done for the simple reason that the Ford car is not properly equipped for efficient operation. One cause of inefficiency is the standard carbureting system (low in first cost but ,expensive to operate), which can give satisfactory results only when the engine is running hot and when the adjustment is constantly changed by an expert to suit speed, throttle, and road condition^.^ Under these particular conditions, 22 to 24 mi. per gal. can be obtained under steady driving. But the average driver is not expert, and he could not use the dash adjustment to the best advantage even if he would. An official economy test run on May 14, 1913, from Weehawken, N. J., to Newburgh, N. Y. (64.7 mi.) resulted as follows : Gal. of Mil. per C.4R WVEIGIIT Gasoline Gal. 3.33 19.3 Ford.. 1614 4 , 056 15.9 Paige ............. 2500 2790 5.301 12.1 Pathfinder . . . . . . . . . 2460 4,324 14.9 Briggs . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 2680 .5,482 Oakland . . . . . . . . . . . 5.000 12.9 Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . 2540 7.503 8.57 3800 American . . . . . . . . . . 4630 8.726 7.38 Alco.. . . . . . . . . . . . . Best Score-162 by Paige Poorest Score-206 by Ford
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Relative Fuel Consumption 206 162 190 175 204 196 197 188
*On June 11, 1914, this same course was covered by a standard ,equipped Ford similar in every respect to the one used in the above test, except that it was not in perfect condition, having been in general use for some time and not overhauled or specially prepared for a test in any way. After covering the distance to h'ewburgh, the car was brought back to Weehawken and equipped 8 For a discussion of the variables affecting economy and engine perbformance, see "A Chemically Controlled Automobile." THIS JOURNAL, 14 !(1922), 6.
N D ENGINEERING CHEiU'ISTRY D
62.2 42.5 60.4 78.6 56.0 72.15 42.7 53.1 48.1 44.7 44.2 49.8 72.15 72.15 45.6 89.45 131.2 84.9 46.45 143.1 74.55 72.15 62.2 44.7 44.25 56.1 61.7 35.8 60.4 106.0 62.2 82.85 103.7 59.85 62.1 51.8 72.15 88.45 46.45
R
4.5 4.66 4.6 4.14 (7) 5.12 4.4 3.66 4.16 4.45 4.66 3.63 4.33 4.11 4.81 4.87 3.71 (?) 3.8 4 . 1 (?) 4.56 3.5 3.87 4.42 4.5 4.5 4.66 4.66 4.93 4.5 4.3 4.36 4.75 4.55
0)
4.7 4.5
(?, (?) (?)
5
T
Wh 10.5 10.84 10.2 10.2 10.5 10.2 11.2 x x 10.5 x 10.84 x 10.5 11.2 x x 10.5 x 10.2 9.88 x x 10.2 x 10.2 x 9.6 10.5 x 10.84 x 10.2 x 10.5 x x 10.2 x 10.2 x 10.2 x 10.5 x 10.5 10.2 x 11.2 x x q s 10.2 X D 9.6 x4 10.5 x 4'/2 1 0 . 5 x5 10.2 x4 10.2 9.88 x 4l/z x4 10.5 x4 10.5 x 4'/z 1 0 . 2 x4 10.2 x x x x x x
4 4 4 5 4 4 31/2 4 4 4 31/2 4 4 4l/r 4 5 s 41/2 4 5 4'/2 4 4 4 4 4 4l/z 31/s
M 47.25 50.5 47.0 42.1 (?) 53.75 44.9 41.0 48.4 48.25 49.0 40.6 45.5 42.0 47.5 49.7 3 6 . 8 (?) 36.4 4 0 . 3 (7) 49.5 35.7 40.6 45.0 45.9 45.9 49.0 49.0 50.3 50.5 43.9 42.0 50.0 47.8
...
48 44.5
..
..
5i:o
973 Wt. 3300 2300 3000 4000 2800 2985 1800 2400 2320 2560 1500 2430 3200 3500 2500 4100 5300 3800 2100 4800 4000 3400 3000 2500 2300 2700 3150 1900 2900 4470 3000 3500 5100 3100 3600 2500 2900 3200 3000
C 0.28 0.375 0.296 0.245 (?) 0.295 0.278 0.45 0.338 0.359 0.357 0.472 0.3.59 0.28 0.254 0.344 0.244 (?) 0.182 0.238 (?) 0.374 0.184 0.257 0.264 0.296 0.372 0.373 0.313 0.278 0.435 0.311 0.202 0,282 0.236
G 14.5 19.5 15.4 1 2 . 7 (?) 15.3 14.5 23.4 17.6 18.6 18.5 24.6 18.6 14.5 13.2 17.9 1 2 . 7 (?) 9.5 1 2 . 4 (?) 19.4 9.5 13.3 13.7 15.4 19.4 19.4 16.2 14.5 22.6 16.2 10.5 14.7 12.3
0: 291 0.28
15:1 14.5
... ...
...
0.325
.. ..
1a:9
with an improved carburetor.' No other changes or adjustments of any kind were made. The following day, June 12, 1914, the same Ford car was driven over the same course by the same driver with the following comparative results. Weehawken t o Newburgh, 64.7 mi.
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Relative Fuel Consumption 228 156
..........
158
Gal. Mi. per Gal. Ford, standard carburetor.. 3.68 17.6 Ford, improved carburetor. 2.52 25.7 98 mi. on LongIsland (August 1914) Ford, improved carburetor.. 3.9 25.25
The car was then put through the shop and found to have a faulty timer. After the car had been put into first-class condition in every respect, 20 mi. per gal. could be obtained with the standard carburetor and 29 mi. per gal. with the improved carburetor. These results, which have been repeatedly checked in the last eight years, show a 45 per cent increase in mileage, or a 30 per cent decrease in fuel consumption, by simply supplying an improved carburetor to a standard Ford touring car, that the Ford car can be made to operate as efficiently as the more expensive cars by simply supplying a satisfactory carbureting system. They show that you can drive your Ford 7250 mi. on the same amount of gasoline you now use for 5000, that Ford could buy a Muscle Shoals every 18 days with the savings made by improving the carbureting system on his cars which are wasting annually 400,000,000 gal. of gasoline, $100,000,000; every week more than enough to adequately support the Chemical Warfare Service for a year! Can we afford it? 4 Similar t o the carburetor described in "A Chemically Controlled Automobile,'' LOC.c i t .
An institute of theoretical and applied optics with a course lasting two years has been established a t Paris. A research laboratory is an important part of the institute. A monthly journal has been established, Revue d'Optigue thkoretigue et instrumentale, which has the cooperation of the French syndicate of makers of optical apparatus and instruments of precision. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., has agreed to donate $60,000 to . Princeton University for the establishment of a Library of Industrial Relations.
