Cellulose, Chitosan, and Keratin Composite

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Cellulose, Chitosan and Keratin Composite Materials. Controlled Release of Drug Chieu D. Tran Langmuir, Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/la5034367 • Publication Date (Web): 30 Dec 2014 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on January 5, 2015

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Cellulose, Chitosan and Keratin Composite Materials. Controlled Release of Drug

Journal: Manuscript ID: Manuscript Type: Date Submitted by the Author: Complete List of Authors:

Langmuir la-2014-034367.R2 Article 29-Dec-2014 Tran, Chieu; Marquette University, Chemistry Mututuvari, Tamutsiwa; Marquette University,

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Cellulose, Chitosan and Keratin Composite Materials. Controlled Release of Drug Chieu D. Tran* and Tamutsiwa Mututuvari Department of Chemistry, Marquette University, P. O. Box 1881, Milwaukee, WI 53201 ABSTRACT A method was developed in which cellulose (CEL) and/or chitosan (CS) were added to keratin (KER) to enable [CEL/CS+KER] composites to have better mechanical strength and wider utilization. Butylmethylimmidazolium chloride ([BMIm+Cl-]), an ionic liquid, was used as the sole solvent, and since [BMIm+Cl-] used was recovered, the method is green and recyclable. FTIR results confirm that KER, CS and CEL remain chemically intact in the composites. Tensile strength results expectedly show that adding CEL or CS into KER substantially increases mechanical strength of the composites. We found that CEL, CS and KER can encapsulate drug such as ciprofloxacin (CPX), and subsequently release the drug either as a single or as two- or three-component composites. Interestingly, releasing rates for CPX by CEL and CS either as a single or as [CEL+CS] composite are faster and independent on concentration of CS and CEL. Conversely, releasing rate by KER is much slower, and when incorporated into CEL, CS or CEL+CS, it substantially slows down the rate as well. Furthermore, the reducing rate was found to correlate with the concentration of KER in the composites. KER, a protein, is known to have secondary structure whereas CEL and CS exit only in random form. This makes KER structurally denser compared to CEL and CS, and hence, KER releases the drug slower than CEL and CS. The results clearly indicate that drug release can be controlled and adjusted at any rate by judiciously selecting the concentration of KER in the composites. Furthermore, the fact that the [CEL+CS+KER] composite has combined properties of its components namely superior mechanical strength (CEL), hemostasis and bactericide (CS) and controlled drug release (KER) 1 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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indicates that this novel composite can be used for applications which hitherto are not possible; e.g., as a high performance bandage to treat chronic and ulcerous wounds.

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INTRODUCTION Keratins (KER) are a group of cysteine-rich fibrous proteins found in filamentous or hard structures such as hairs, wools, feathers, nails and horns. Like other naturally derived protein biomaterials such as collagen, KER possess amino acid sequences similar to those found on extracellular matrix (ECM). Since ECM is known to interact with integrins which enable it to support cellular attachment, proliferation and migration, KER-based biomaterials are expected to have such properties as well.1-14 In fact, KER extracted from human hair fibers was found to contain a cell adhesion motif of leucine-aspartic acid-valine (LDV) 1 and some regulatory molecules which, as a consequence, render it ability to enhance nerve tissue regeneration. Keratin also exhibits minimal foreign body response and fibrous capsule formation.5 The abundance and regenerative nature of wools and hairs coupled with the ability to be readily converted into biomaterials for the control of several biological processes have made KER a subject of intense study for various biomedical applications including scaffolds for tissue engineering and drug delivery.1-14 Unfortunately, in spite of its unique structure and properties, KER has relatively poor mechanical properties, and as a consequence, materials made from KER lack the stability required for medical applications.1-14 To increase the structural strength of KER-based materials, attempts have been made to cross-link KER chains with a crosslinking agent or convert its functional group via chemical reaction(s).1-14 This rather complicated, costly and multistep process is not desirable as it may inadvertently alter its unique properties, making the KER-based materials less biocompatible and diminishing its unique properties. A new method which can improve the structural strength of KER products not by chemical modification with synthetic chemicals and/or synthetic polymers but rather by use of naturally occurring biopolymers such as cellulose (CEL) and/or chitosan (CS), is required. 3 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Polysaccharides such as CEL are known to have strong mechanical property.6-8 Similar to CEL, CS, another polysaccharide derived from chitin, not only has strong mechanical property but also has additional properties including its ability to stop bleeding (hemostasis), heal wounds, kill bacteria and adsorb organic and inorganic pollutants.15-24 It is, therefore, possible that adding CEL and/or CS to KER will make it possible not only to enhance the mechanical property of the [CEL/CS+KER] composites but also extend their properties so that the composites can be employed for a variety of applications which hitherto are not possible. Unfortunately, in spite of the potentials, it has been difficult to synthesize such composites because the unique structures of KER, CEL and CS which give them desirable properties also make it very difficult to dissolve these three biopolymers. Recently, it was found that ionic liquid such as butylmethylimidazolium chloride ([BMIm+Cl-]) can dissolve not only KER but also CEL and CS. Such discovery is significant as it is now possible to use [BMIm+Cl-] as the sole solvent to synthesize [CEL/CS+KER] composites in a single step.15-24 The information presented is indeed provocative and clearly indicate that adding CEL and/or CS to KER not only would substantially enhance the mechanical property but also expand properties of the [CEL/CS+KER] composites to enable them to be practically used for various applications. Such consideration prompted us to initiate this study which aims to improve the mechanical properties of the KER composites by adding either CEL and/or CS to the composites, and to determine if the composites can encapsulate and controlled release of drug. If it can, experiments will then be carried out to determine the kinetics and mechanism of the release, and the function of components of the composite on the release. Ciprofloxacin, a broad range antibiotic widely used for various treatments25,26 will be used as the drug in this study because it can be sensitively detected through its intense fluorescence signal. The results of our initial investigation are reported herein. 4 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Chemicals and Instruments sections can be found in the Supporting Information. Synthesis of [CEL+CS+KER] Composites The [CEL+CS+KER] composites were successfully synthesized by making minor modifications to the procedure previously used to synthesize [CEL+CS] composites16-18. As shown on Scheme 1, under N2 atmosphere and vigorous stirring, dissolution of KER, CEL and/or CS in [BMIm+Cl-] was carried out by adding KER, CEL and/or CS in portions of 0.5 wt% of the IL. Succeeding portions was added after the previous material has completely dissolved until the desired concentration is reached. Dissolution of KER required relatively higher temperature (120ºC) than those needed for either CEL or CS (90ºC). Consequently, all KER-based composites were synthesized by first dissolving KER at 120ºC, and once dissolved, the solution temperature was reduced to 90°C before adding CEL or CS. Using this procedure, [BMIm+Cl-] solution of CEL, CS and KER containing up to total concentration of 6 wt% (relative to IL) with various compositions and concentrations of the doped drug, CPX. The resulted solution was casted onto PTFE moulds with desired thickness on Mylar films to produce thin films of 2- and 3-component films with different compositions and concentrations of CEL, CS and KER. They were then be allow to undergo gelation at room temperature to yield Gel Films. Because [BMIm+Cl-] is known to exhibit some toxicity to living organisms 16-18 it was removed from the composites by washing the Gel films with water. The [BMIm+Cl-] in washed water was recovered by distilling the washed solution, and then dried under vacuum at 70ºC overnight before being reused. Finally, Dried Films will be obtained when the Wet Films were allowed to dry at room temperature in a humidity-controlled chamber.


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Synthesis of [CEL+CS+KER] composite films doped with Ciprofloxacin Minor modifications made to the procedure described above were used to synthesize [CEL+CS+KER] composites containing ciprofloxacin (CPX). In a typical experiment, e.g., for the synthesis of CPX-doped 25:75 CS:KER film, 6X0.400 g portions of pre-cut wool pieces were dissolved in 40 g of [BMIm+Cl-] at 120ºC under nitrogen. Upon complete dissolution, the temperature of the [BMIm+Cl-] solution was lowered to 90ºC before 2X0.400 g portions of CS were added. Subsequently, 16 mg of CPX (equivalent of 0.5% to total weight of biopolymers) was added, and allowed to dissolve for a further 2h. The viscous solution was then casted onto a Mylar film, and left to undergo gelation at room temperature for 24h. [BMIm+Cl-] was then removed by washing the gel film in 2.0 L of CPX-saturated water. Fresh CPX-saturated water was replaced every 24 h for 72 h. CPX-saturated water was used to minimize desorption of CPX from the film. The CPX doped, [BMIm+Cl-]-free films were then air dried in a chamber with relative humidity controlled at around 60%. The same procedure was used to prepare composites with different compositions and concentrations of doped with CPX.

Procedure Used to Measure in vitro Release of Ciprofloxacin from CPX-doped [CEL+CS +KER] Composites In vitro CPX release from the CPX-doped composite films was monitored by the fluorimetric method. Essentially, about 3.0-3.5 mg of composite film, cut into a rectangular shape (4.3±0.2 mm (L) 4.1±0.3 mm (W) 0.18±0.02 mm (thickness)), was placed in a standard 10-mm fluorescence cell. A PTFE mesh, cut to fit in the cell, was laid flat on top of the composite film. A tiny stir bar (7 mm x 2 mm x 2 mm L x W x H) was then placed on top of the mesh. Exactly 3.5 mL of 1.0 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7.2 was added into the cell. The cell was closed with a stopper before being immediately inserted into the spectrofluorometer 6 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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(QuantaMaster 40, PTI, Birmingham, NJ). The release of CPX was then monitored by recording emission spectrum of CPX in the buffer solution from 350 to 520 nm with λexc=324 nm. The emission spectrum was taken at specific time intervals for 10 h. The samples were then left to stir for additional 14 h before the last measurement was taken. This final measurement was used as the amount of CPX released at equilibrium. The amount of CPX released at each time point, Mt, was calculated by using a calibration curve generated at λemis=418 nm. A preliminary experiment was carried out using a blank films (that is, sample without CPX) to determine if [CEL+CS+KER] composites have any background signal. No background signal was detected. Additional experimentation was also performed to determine if CPX was stable during the 24 hr measurement period. Fluorescence of a buffer solution containing CPX with the same concentration as that of CPX released at equilibrium was measured and monitored for 24 h. It was found that within experimental error, the fluorescence intensity remained the same throughout the whole period, which indicates that CPX was stable during the 24 hr releasing measurement time.

Kinetics of Drug Release The in vitro drug release data were fitted to four different kinetic models; zero order,27,28 first order 27-30, Higuchi 31,32 and Korsmeyer-Peppas or Power law model.33-36 Zero order model is based on the assumption that the rate of drug release is independent of its concentration. It is represented by the equation: ୑౪

୑ಮ

= k଴ ‫ݐ‬

(1)

where Mt/M∞ is the fractional release of the drug at time t, and ko is the zero order constant.


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The first order model describes a system where the release rate is concentration dependent; it is represented by the equation: ୑

ln ቀ1 − ୑ ౪ ቁ = −kଵ t

(2)

ಮ

where k1, the 1st-order rate constant. Higuchi model, sometimes referred to as the square root law because of the square root of time dependence of drug released, is based on Fickian diffusion of the drug from the matrix.31,32 This relation is taken to be valid during the early times of drug release, namely the time up to 60% release of the drug.31,32 Because not all systems can be described by the Higuchi model, a more general model, the Korsmeyer-Peppas model,33-36 was developed to describe all cases including systems which are deviated from Fickian diffusion. The model relates fractional release to time through an empirical exponent, n and rate constant, ksp according to the following equation: ୑౪ ୑ಮ

= k ୱ୮ t ୬

(3)

As expected, data fitted using this relation in the early time release region is the same as in the Higuchi model.31,32,33-36 According to this model the n exponential value is related to the mechanism of drug release.33-36 Specifically, the release is Fickian diffusion when n ≤0.45. If 0.45≤n≤0.8 it indicates anomalous (non-Fickian) transport, and for 0.8≤n≤1 , the release follows Case II, zero order mechanism.33-36 Release of CPX by each composite was measured at least three times, data obtained were fitted into the four different kinetic models described, and averaged kinetic parameters (rate constants (k0, k1, kH and kKP) and exponential n values) are reported together with their associated standard deviations. It is not possible to present all averaged rate constants together with their corresponding standard deviations because of space limitation of the Table. As a 8 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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consequence, the standard deviations are presented in the parenthesis next to their corresponding averaged values. For example, ksp for 100% CS is 1.06±0.01 which is presented in the Table 1 as 1.06(1). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Spectroscopic Characterization FTIR was used to confirm that CEL, CS and KER were not chemically altered by dissolution with and regeneration from ionic liquids. Spectra of wool, shown as the pink curve in Figure 1A and B, exhibited characteristic bands that can be assigned to the vibrational modes of peptide bonds in proteins. For examples; the bands at 1700-1600 cm-1 and 1550 cm-1 are due to amide C=O stretch (amide I) and C-N stretch (amide II) vibrations respectively37. In addition, the 3280 cm-1 band can be assigned to N-H stretch vibration (amide A) whilst a band at 13001200 cm-1 is due to the in-phase combination of the N-H bending and the C-N stretch vibrations (amide III). This finding is expected since wool contains more than 95% of keratin protein.38 It is noteworthy to add that the FTIR spectrum of wool does not have any band at 1745 cm-1, which is known to be due to lipid ester carbonyl vibrations.39 It seems, therefore, that the Soxhlet extraction effectively removed all residual lipids from wool. Interestingly, upon regenerating KER film from the wool, no new IR signatures were detected in the FTIR spectrum of the former (compare pink spectrum for wool to the black spectrum for 100%KER). The results indicate that dissolution by and regeneration of KER from [BMIm+Cl-] do not produce any chemical alteration on the chemical structure of KER. The FTIR spectra of [CEL+KER] and [CS+KER] composites with different compositions are also presented in in Fig 1 (A) and (B). As expected, the spectra of these composite films exhibit bands characteristic of their respective components. Furthermore, magnitude of these bands seems to correlate well with the concentration of corresponding component in the film. 9 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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For example; the band between 900-1200 cm-1 (due to sugar ring deformations) increased in relative intensity concomitantly with the relative concentration of CEL in the [CEL+KER] composite (Fig 1A). On the other hand, the intensity of the amide I and amide II bands increased with the increase in the relative concentration of KER in the same composite films. Similar behavior was also observed for [CS+KER] composite films (Fig 1B). It is noteworthy to add that, in all composite films ([CEL+KER], [CS+KER] and [CEL+KER+CS]), no new bands are found in their FTIR spectra; i.e., the spectra of the composites are a superposition of the spectra of the corresponding individual components. This, as noted earlier, further confirms that no chemical alterations occurred during the synthesis of these composites.

Mechanical Properties Although KER has been shown to induce controlled release of drug substances,58,9,13 its poor mechanical properties continue to hamper its potential applications. For example, as previously reported and also observed in this study, regenerated KER film was found to be too brittle to be reasonably used in any application. Since CEL is known to possess superior mechanical strength, it is possible enhance the mechanical property of KER-based composite by adding CEL or other polysaccharides such as CS into it. Accordingly, [KER+CEL] and [KER+CS] composites with different concentrations were prepared, and their tensile strength was measured. Figure 2 plots tensile strength of [CEL+KER] and [CS+KER] composites as a function of CEL and CS content. As illustrated, the tensile strength of [CEL+KER] composite films was found to increase concomitantly with the content of CEL. For example, the tensile strength of [CEL+KER] increased by at least 4X when CEL loading was increased from 25% to 75%. This behavior has also been reported elsewhere when CEL was used as a reinforcement in other composites.52 It is worth noting that [CEL+KER] composite films were much weaker than 10 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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[CS+CEL].53 For example, [CEL+KER] and [CEL+CS] containing 75% and 71% CEL had tensile strengths 36±3 MPa and 52 MPa respectively. This could be attributed to the fact that CEL structure is more similar to that of CS than KER structure. Therefore much stronger interactions can be formed between CEL and CS than between CEL and KER. Although CS also leads to an increase in the tensile strength of [CS+KER], its effect is noticeably weaker than that of CEL of comparable loading. For example, [CEL+KER] and [CS+KER] had tensile strength values of 37±6 MPa and 20±1 MPa respectively for a 40% KER loading. This could be due to the fact that CS has relatively inferior mechanical strength than CEL which can be seen by the tensile strengths of 100% CS (36±9 MPa) and 100% CEL (82±4 MPa). Qualitative Assessment of the Release Assay The objective of this study was to evaluate if composites containing CEL, KER, and/or CS are suitable as matrix platforms to control release of the drug, CPX; and if they are, to determine the most effective composition and concentration of the composite. Drug release assays were carried out using composites containing relatively different concentrations of CEL, KER and CS. The concentration of the drug was fixed at 0.5% of the total weight of the biopolymers in each formulation. Careful consideration was made to insure that sink conditions for the drug was maintained throughout the experiment so that the release medium was not saturated by the released drug. Specifically, experimental conditions were chosen to insure that the drug concentration was always less than 10% of the saturation solubility in the release medium, which for CPX in phosphate buffer is 73±7 ppm at 21±1 °C 40. Each of composite films used in release experiments (i.e., 3.5 mg of film) contains 0.0174 mg (equivalent to 0.5% CPX per total weight of biopolymers in the composite) of CPX which, in 3.5 mL release medium corresponds to ~5 ppm of the maximum concentration of CPX that can possibly be released by a


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typical composite film. Since this this value is well below the CPX maximum solubility of 73±7 ppm, it is clear that the sink conditions were maintained in this study. Fluorescence spectra of the drug release from 100% KER film (i.e., CPX in solution) plotted as a function of releasing time shown in Figure 3. As illustrated, the intensity of the fluorescence spectrum increases as a result of CPX being released into the buffer medium. The fact that the position of λmax (at 480 nm) and the shape of the spectra remained the same throughout the entire released time seems to indicate that the drug remained stable over the whole assay period. In addition, these time dependent spectra appeared to be identical to the calibration spectra (not shown). This suggests that CPX remained chemically stable throughout the encapsulating process into the biopolymer matrices. Fluorescence spectra of CPX that were released from other films, 100%CS and 100% CEL, were also measured, and results obtained were used, together with those for 100% KER to generate plots of fraction of drug released, Mt/M∞ against time, t ,for each film (Figure 4). As illustrated, for all three films, the release profiles are characterized by an initial rapid release that eventually reaches a plateau. While the duration and amount of CPX released are somewhat similar for 100% CS and 100% CEL, they are much different from those for 100% KER. For example, it took ca. 30 minutes for 100% CEL and 100% CS to release 60% of the encapsulated CPX while up to 4X longer (120 minutes) was needed for 100% KER to release similar amount of CPX. Since CS and CEL are both polysaccharides and have similar structure, it is expected that the release of CPX from them will be similar. Being a protein KER has very much different structure from that of the polysaccharide24,41. In fact, it is known that proteins such as KER have relatively well defined secondary structure (i.e., α-helix and β-sheet)24,41 compared to polysaccharides which are known to adopt random structure in solution. This, in effect, makes


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KER structurally denser compared to CEL and CS. Consequently, KER releases the drug at relatively slower rate than CEL and CS. Water molecules can diffuse into the biopolymer matrix, producing swelling of the biopolymer. This, in turn, makes it easier for encapsulated drug to diffuse out and be released. It is known, based on our previous report on swelling,17 that CS absorbs at least 3X more water than CEL owing to the more rigid structure of CEL. Therefore, CS is expected to eventually release more drug than CEL at equilibrium. In fact, the results obtained in the present study concurs with this finding, namely, 100% CS released a total of 77% CPX whilst 100% CEL released only 65%. Being structurally denser with a well-defined secondary structure, it is expected that it would be relatively harder for water molecules to diffuse into KER.42 However, it is possible that the phosphate ions in the buffer may adsorb onto the protein thereby making it more ionic. This, in effect, would make it easier for KER to absorb more water over time. As a consequence, KER released relatively more drug at equilibrium albeit at a slower pace than either CEL or CS. This could explain why 100% KER released up to 91% drug at equilibrium. As described above, CEL and CS were added to KER to enable [CEL+CS+KER] composites to have better mechanical strength and wider utilization. Releasing profiles of [CEL/CS+KER] composites with different concentrations are shown in Figure 5. In all cases 100% CEL released the least total amount of drug at equilibrium. All samples containing KER showed some degree of controlled release, especially at high KER concentration. Conversely, higher concentrations of either CEL or CS produced opposite effect. This was most pronounced for composites containing only CEL and CS. As illustrated, all [CS+CEL] composites reached equilibrium within the first hour of the releasing time. However, when either CEL or CS was blended with KER, there was a substantial slowdown in the rate of drug release. These results clearly indicate that KER can serve in controlling the release of the drug. 13 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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Quantitative Assessment of the Release Profiles Quantitative assessment of the release kinetics was then performed on composites with different compositions and concentrations. This was accomplished by fitting release data to the four kinetic models; zero order-, first order-, Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas (KP) or power law model. Results obtained of all composites for all models are listed in Table 1. Figure 6 shows representative fitting of the 10:50:40 CS:KER:CEL composite for all four models. The performance of each model was evaluated by visually inspecting the fit, the R2 and the MSC values. 43. As shown in Fig 6 and listed in Table 1, data fit very poorly to zero-order model, and, as expected, also gave the lowest R2 and MSC values for all composites which indicate that this model cannot be used to describe the release kinetic. Although the first order model gave relatively better fit and higher R2 and MSC values for some composites, this trend was inconsistent. For examples, first order model gave the highest R2 and MSC values for only 100% KER, 25:75 CEL:KER, 50:10:40 and 30:30:40 CS:KER:CEL which corresponds to only 24% of the total composites measured. It is, therefore, is not appropriate either. Both Higuchi and Kormeyer-Peppas models have relatively better fit and high values for R2 with the former having higher values 64% of the time, and the later model 36% of the time. This suggests that both Higuchi and power law models may be suitable. However, when MSC values are also taken into account, Higuchi model gives higher values of MSC only 24% of the time with the remainder 76% are by Korsmeyer-Peppas model. These two results seem to be contradictory at first. However, closer inspection reveals that that the differences in the R2 values of both models are relatively small whereas the differences in MSC are substantially larger. As a consequence, Korsmeyer-Peppas model seems to be more suited and hence, was subsequently used to describe release kinetics. 14 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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For clarity the rate constants (kSP values) from the Korsmeyer-Peppas model were used to generate 3D plots which are shown in Fig 7A for 2 component composites ([CEL+KER] and [CS+KER]), and 7B for 3 component composites ([CEL+CS+KER]). As illustrated, 100% KER gave the lowest kSP values (0.357±0.006) compared to either 100% CEL or 100% CS. In addition, 100% CEL and 100% CS gave almost identical kSP values (1.04±0.07 and 1.06±0.01 for 100%CEL and 100% CS, respectively). As listed in Table 1 and Fig 7A, for [CS+KER] composites, kSP values decreased concomitantly with the increase in proportional content of KER. For example, adding 62.5% KER to CS reduced ksp value by 33%. A further 48% reduction was observed when additional 12.5% of KER was added to the 62.5:37.5 KER:CS composite film. The blending of CS and KER is attractive because CS not only improves the mechanical properties but may also provide additional benefits. Specifically, we have previously shown that CS fully retains its unique properties (hemostasis and ability to inhibit the growth of both Gram positive and negative microorganisms (including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin resistant S. aureus and vancomycin resistant Enterococcus faecalis) when adding to CEL.16,18 It is, therefore, expected that CS also can retain its property as a component of the [KER+CS] composites. The same trend observed in the release by [CS+KER] composites was also seen in the release by [CEL+KER] composites. This is hardly surprising considering CEL and CS both polysaccharide and possess similar chemical structure except for the presence of amino groups in CS. However, for a given KER content, the [CEL+KER] composite film gave a somewhat higher ksp value than the corresponding [CS+KER]. For example, composites containing 75% KER gave kSP values of 0.53±0.01 for [CEL+KER] and 0.313±0.005 for [CS+KER]. To verify that KER was indeed responsible for slowdown in drug release, we synthesized CPX-doped composite films containing only the two polysaccharides, CEL and CS. The kinetic results are 15 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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listed in Table 1, and plotted in Figure 7A. It is interesting to note that when these two polysaccharides were blended, the resultant composites gave relatively higher kSP values than kSP values obtained from either 100% CEL or 100% CS. In addition, the kSP values for the [CS+CEL] composites does not seem to correlate to the amount of either CS or CEL in the composites. This behavior could be a result of similarity in the chemical structures of these two polysaccharides. The fact that the kSP values for [CEL+CS] composites were consistently higher than kSP values either [CEL+KER] and [CS+KER] further confirms the ability of KER to control the release of the drug. Experiments were also designed to determine if KER can still slow down drug release from a composition containing all three KER, CEL and CS. Five composites were synthesized in which the concentration of CEL was fixed at 40% whereas those for CS and KER were varied from 10% to 50%. The results are listed in Table 1 and plotted in Fig 7B. Again it was found that increasing concentration of KER leads to substantially decrease in the release kinetics. For example, increasing concentration of KER from 10% to 30% leads to 41% decrease in the releasing rate (from 2.0±0.3 to 1.16±0.06). Further increasing KER concentration to 50% lead to kSP value of 0.76±0.03 or 34% reduction. It is therefore, evidently clear that ability of KER to slow down the release of the drug remains intact in three component composites as well. This finding is of particular significance because it indicates that release of drug can be controlled and adjusted at any rate by judiciously selecting the concentration of KER in the [CEL+CS+KER] composite. Furthermore, the [CEL+CS+KER] composite is superior to all other 2-component composites as it has combined properties of all three components namely superior mechanical strength (from CEL), hemostasis, bactericide and ability to adsorb pollutants and toxins (from CS) and controlled release of drugs (from KER).


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Additional information on the mechanism of the drug release can also be obtained from the exponential value (n) of the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. As described in section above, if n ≤ 0.45 it is the Fickian mechanism, 0.5 ≤ n ≤ 0.8 Non- Fickian mechanism and if 0.8 ≤ n ≤ 1.0 a zero order mechanism governing the drug release from the composites.32-35. n values for different composites are listed in Table 1. Except two composites (75:25 CS:KER and 10:50:40 CS:KER:CEL) which, within experimental error, have n values close to 0.4, all other 13 composites have 0.5 ≤ n ≤ 0.8. The results seem to indicate that drug release from these composites is governed mainly by a non-Fickian mechanism. It is possible that more than one mechanism is involved in the release. For example, a combination of diffusion and relaxation of the biopolymers including swelling by water, unfolding of the biopolymers contribute to the releasing of the drug from the composites.

CONCLUSIONS In summary, we have demonstrated that novel composites materials containing CEL, CS and KER can be successfully synthesized by a simple, green and totally recyclable one step process. Adding CEL into the composite substantially improves its mechanical strength thereby enabling it to be used for practical and general applications. All three biopolymers, CEL, CS and KER, were found to be able to encapsulate drug such as ciprofloxacin (CPX) and subsequently release it either as a single or as two- or three-component composites. Interestingly, releasing rates by CPX by CEL and CS either as a single or as [CEL+CS] composite are relatively much faster and independent on concentration of CS and CEL in the composite. Conversely, releasing rate by KER is much slower, and when incorporated into CEL, CS or CEL+CS, it substantially slows down the releasing rate of the composites as well. Furthermore, the reducing releasing rate was found to correlate to the concentration of KER in the composite. This may be due to the 17 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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fact that KER, being a protein, is known to have secondary structure whereas CEL and CS exit only in random form. This, in effect, makes KER structurally denser compared to CEL and CS which are porous because of their random structure. Consequently, KER releases the drug at relatively slower rate than CEL and CS. Taken together, results obtained clearly indicate that releasing of drug can be controlled and adjusted at any rate by judiciously selecting the concentration of KER in the [CEL+KER], [CS+KER] and [CEL+CS+KER] composites. Furthermore, the fact that the [CEL+CS+KER] composite has combined properties of all three components namely superior mechanical strength (from CEL), hemostasis and bactericide (from CS) and controlled release of drugs (from KER) indicate that it is possible, for the first time, to use this this novel composite for general and practical applications which hitherto are not possible. This includes its use as a high performance bandage which can heal wound, kill bacteria and deliver drugs for the treatment of chronic ulcerous wounds of diabetic patients.

ASSOCIATED CONTENT Supporting Information Information on the Chemicals and Instrument. This information is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

Corresponding Author. *Tel: 1 414 288 5428. Email: [email protected] The authors declare no competing financial interest.


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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Research reported in this publication was supported by the

National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Award number R15GM099033.


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10. Cui, L.; Gong, J.; Fan, X.; Wang, P.; Wang, Q.; Qiu, Y. Trans glutaminase‐modified wool keratin film and its potential application in tissue engineering. Eng. Life Sci. 2013, 13, 149155. 11. Xu, S.; Sang, L.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, X.; Li, X. Biological evaluation of human hair keratin scaffolds for skin wound repair and regeneration. Mater. Sci. and Eng. C 2013, 33, 648-655. 12. de Guzman, R. C.; Merrill, M. R.; Richter, J. R.; Hamzi, R. I.; Greengauz-Roberts, O. K.; Van Dyke, M. E. Mechanical and biological properties of keratose biomaterials. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 8205-8217. 13. Rouse, J. G.; Van Dyke, M. E. A review of keratin-based biomaterials for biomedical applications. Materials 2010, 3, 999-1014. 14. Songmei Xu, Lin Sang, Yaping Zhang, Xiaoliang Wang, Xudong Li, Biological evaluation of human hair keratin scaffolds for skin wound repair and regeneration”, Mat, Sci. Eng. C 2013, 33, 648–655. 15. Battista, O. A.; Smith, P. A. Microcrystalline cellulose. Ind. Eng. Chem. 1962, 54, 20-29. 16. Tran, C. D.; Duri, S.; Harkins, A. L. Recyclable synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial activity of chitosan‐based polysaccharide composite materials. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2013, 101, 2248-2257. 17. Tran, C. D.; Duri, S.; Delneri, A.; Franko, M. Chitosan-cellulose composite materials: preparation, characterization and application for removal of microcystin. J. Hazard. Mater. 2013, 252, 355-366. 18. Harkins, A. L.; Duri, S.; Kloth, L. C.; Tran, C. D. Chitosan–cellulose composite for wound dressing material. Part 2. Antimicrobial activity, blood absorption ability, and biocompatibility. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B 2014, 102, 1199-1206.


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19. Han, X.; D. W. Armstrong, D. W. Ionic Liquids in Separations, Acc. Chem. Res. 2007, 40 1079-1086. 20. El Seould OA, Koschella A, Fidale LC, Dom S, Heinze T. Applications of ionic liquids in carbohydrate chemistry. Biomacromolecules 2007, 8, 2629-2647. 21. Pinkert A, Marsh KN, Pang S, Staiger MP. Ionic liquids and their interaction with cellulose. Chem Rev 2009, 109, 6712-6728. 22. Mora-Pale M, Meli L, Doherty TV, Linhardt RJ. Room temperature ionic liquids as emerging solvents for the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Biotechnol Bioeng 2011, 108, 1229-1245. 23. Abdul Rehman, A.; Zeng, Xiangqun, “Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents and Electrolytes for Robust Chemical Sensor Development”, Acct. Chem. Res., 2012, 45, 1667–1677. 24. Xie, H.; Li, S.; Zhang, S. Ionic liquids as novel solvents for the dissolution and blending of wool keratin fibers. Green Chem. 2005, 7, 606-608. 25. Schaeffer, A. J., The expanding role of fluoroquinolones Am. J. Med 2002, 113 suppl. 1A, 45S-54S. 26. Segev, S.; Yaniv, I.; Haverstock, D.; Reinhart, H.; Safety of long term therapy with ciprofloxacin: Data analysis of controlled clinical trials and review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1999, 28, 299-308. 27. Varelas, C. G.; Dixon, D. G.; Steiner, C. Zero-order release from biphasic polymer hydrogels, J. Control. Release 1995, 34, 185-192. 28. Costa, P.; Manuel, J.; Lobo, S. Modeling and comparison of dissolution profiles. European J. Pharm. Sci. 2001, 13, 123-133.


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29. Gibaldi, M.; Feldman, S. Establishment of sink conditions in dissolution rate determinationsTheoretical consideration and application to non-disintegrating dosage forms, J. Pharm. Sci. 1967, 56, 1238-1242. 30. Wagner, J. G. Interpretation of percent dissolved-time plots derived from in vitro testing of conventional tablets and capsules, J. Pharm. Sci. 1969, 58, 1253-1257. 31. Higuchi, T. Rate of release of medicaments from ointment bases containing drugs in suspension, J. Pharm. Sci. 1961, 50, 874-875. 32. Higuchi, T. Mechanism of sustained-action medication. Theoretical analysis for rate of release of solid drugs dispersed in solid matrices, J. Pharm. Sci. 1963, 52, 1145-1149. 33. Korsmeyer, R. W.; Gurny, R.; Doelker, E. M.; Buri, P.; Peppas, N. A. Mechanism of solute release from porous hydrophilic polymers, Int. J. Pharm. 1983, 15, 25-35. 34. Ritger, P. L.; Peppas, N. A. A simple equation for description of solute release I. Fickian and anomalous release from swellable devices. J. Control. Release, 1987, 5, 37-42. 35. Ritger, P. L.; Peppas, N. A. A simple equation for description of solute release I. Fickian and non-fickian release from non-swellable devices in the form of slabs, cylinders or discs. J. Control. Release, 1987, 5, 23-36. 36. Peppas, N. A.; Sahlin, J. J. A simple equation for the description of solute release. III. Coupling of diffusion and relaxation. Int. J. Pharm. 1989, 57, 169-172. 37. Li, L.; Wang, D. Preparation of regenerated wool keratin films from wool keratin-ionic liquid solutions, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2003, 127, 2648-2653. 38. Peplow, P. V.; Roddick-Lanzilotta, A. D. Orthopaedic materials derived from keratin, United States Patent 2005/0232963 A1, 2005. 39. Fang, J. Y.; Chen, J. P.; Leu, Y. L.:Wang, H. Y. Characterization and evaluation of silk protein hydrogels for drug delivery, Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 54, 156-162. 23 ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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40. Persson, A. M.; Sokolowski,A.; Pettersson, C. Correlation of in vitro dissolution rate and apparent solubility in buffered media using a miniaturized rotating disk equipment: Part 1. Comparison with a traditional USP rotating disk apparatus, Drug Discov. Ther. 2009, 3, 104113. 41. Aluigi, A.; Zoccola, M.; Vineis, C.; Tonin, C.; Ferrero, F.; Canetti, M. Study on the structure and properties of wool keratin regenerated from formic acid. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2007, 41, 266-273. 42. Reichi, S.; Borrelli, M.; Geerling, G. Keratin films for ocular surface reconstruction, Biomaterials, 2011, 32, 3375-3386. 43. Phaechamud, T.; Ritthidej, G. Formulation Variables Influencing Drug Release from Layered Matrix System Comprising Chitosan and Xantham Gum. AAPS Pharm. Sci. Tech. 2008, 9, 870-877.


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Figure Captions Scheme 1.

Procedure used to prepare the [CEL/CS+KER] composite materials.

Table 1.

Kinetic Parameters of Releasing of CPX Fitted to Different Kinetic Modes. See Text for Detailed Information.

Figure 1.

FTIR spectra of (A) [CEL+KER] and (B) [CS+KER] composites. The spectra for CEL powder (1A, purple curve) and CS powder (1B, purple curve) were included for reference.

Figure 2.

Plots of tensile strength as a function of %CEL in [CEL+KER] composites (red circles) and %CS in [CS+KER] composites (black squares).

Figure 3.

Time dependent fluorescence spectra for Ciprofloxacin release from 100% KER (λexc = 324 nm).

Figure 4.

Plots of release of CPX as a function of time from 100% CS (black curve with stars), 100% KER (purple curve with filled circles) and 100% CEL (red curve with filled triangles).

Figure 5.

Plot of release of CPX as a function of time from (A) [CS+KER] (A): (B) [CS+CEL]; (C), [CEL+KER]; and (D) [CS+KER+CEL].

Figure 6

Kinetics of release of CPX from 10:50:40 CS:KER:CEL plotted as zero order,, first order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer Peppas or Power law model.

Figure 7

3D plot for release rate constants, kSP, obtained by fitting release data to Korsmeyer Peppas model for (A) 2-component composites ([CEL+CS] (black), [CEL+KER] (red) and [CS+KER] (green); and (B) 3-component composites ([CS+KER+CEL]).


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Table 1. Kinetic Parameters of Releasing of CPX Fitted to Different Kinetic Modes. See Text for Detailed Information

% CS 100 75 37.5 25

Zero order model

Higuchi model

Korsmeyer-Peppas model

k0

R2

MSC

k1

R2

MSC

kH

R2

MSC

kKP

n

R2

MSC

25 62.5 75

1.8(1) 4(1) 0.91(4) 0.163(8)

0.9460 0.8266 0.9806 0.9198

0.9469 1.2521 3.7409 2.4752

2.7(1) 6(2) 1.36(4) 0.265(8)

0.9731 0.8788 0.9938 0.9663

1.8366 1.6103 4.8756 3.3441

1.063(2) 1.5(2) 0.76(4) 0.370(8)

0.9999 0.9772 0.9746 0.9835

9.3389 3.2792 3.4721 4.0579

1.06(1) 1.10(6) 0.82(2) 0.313(5)

0.500(6) 0.35(2) 0.70(2) 0.58(2)

0.9999 0.9976 0.9961 0.9800

8.9400 5.1588 5.2623 2.4478

100 75 25 20

25 75 80

0.29(2) 0.49(4) 2.3(4) 1.19(6)

0.9668 0.9650 0.9433 0.9123

3.2502 3.1034 2.3700 0.5700

0.42(1) 0.74(2) 3.2(3) 1.98(5)

0.9932 0.9938 0.9823 0.9740

4.8381 4.8290 3.5359 2.1964

0.43(2) 0.56(4) 1.16(6) 0.92(1)

0.9789 0.9664 0.9944 0.9937

3.7045 3.1444 4.6790 3.1844

0.357(6) 0.53(1) 1.3(1) 1.13(2)

0.72(3) 0.72(3) 0.62(6) 0.65(2)

0.9922 0.9918 0.9941 0.9934

4.6356 4.4557 4.5319 4.9095

100 75 50 25

0.93(6) 2.0(2) 2.1(2) 2.0(2)

0.9129 0.9275 0.9185 0.9342

0.2323 0.6798 0.3182 0.8145

1.50(8) 3.6(2) 4.5(2) 3.6(2)

0.9447 0.9624 0.9753 0.9657

0.9290 1.5482 1.9323 1.6932

0.92(2) 1.42(2) 1.53(2) 1.35(3)

0.9973 0.9991 0.9997 0.9981

4.0715 5.2532 6.2460 4.4624

1.04(7) 1.6(2) 1.67(6) 1.6(3)

0.60(5) 0.57(6) 0.54(2) 0.6(1)

0.9926 0.9975 0.9996 0.9923

4.4566 5.3904 7.2202 4.2671

40 40 40 40 40

1.8(1) 0.73(2) 1.29(6) 0.117(4) 1.02(6)

0.9504 0.9642 0.9749 0.9084 0.9321

1.0529 1.5739 1.8596 0.1321 0.4274

3.8(1) 1.06(3) 2.17(4) 0.183(4) 1.82(6)

0.9904 0.9820 0.9952 0.9534 0.9806

3.0892 2.4761 3.8445 1.2089 2.1153

1.17(7) 0.62(1) 0.86(3) 0.317(3) 0.97(1)

0.9857 0.9967 0.9886 0.9978 0.9984

2.6328 3.8935 2.7842 2.7774 4.3130

2.0(3) 1.06(4) 1.16(6) 0.92(2) 0.76(3)

0.77(8) 0.55(2) 0.62(2) 0.53(4) 0.43(2)

0.9897 0.9935 0.9965 0.9950 0.9941

4.0657 5.8134 5.4192 5.1612 4.8179

KER

25 50 75 50 40 30 20 10

First order model

10 20 30 40 50

CEL


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254x190mm (96 x 96 DPI)


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3.00

raw CEL

100% CEL

75:25 CEL:KER

60:40 CEL:KER

50:50 CEL:KER

40:60 CEL:KER

25:75 CEL:KER

100% KER

wool KER

A

2.50

Absorbance

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00 4000

3500

2.50

3000

2500 2000 Wavenumber (cm-1)

1500

1000

500

raw CS

100% CS

75:25 CS:KER

60:40 CS:KER

50:50 CS:KER

40:60 CS:KER

25:75 CS:KER

100% KER

B

2.00

Absorbance

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00 4000

3500

3000

2500 Wavenumber

2000

1500

1000

500

(cm-1)

Figure 1. FTIR spectra of (A) [CEL+KER] and (B) [CS+KER] composites. The spectra for CEL powder (1A, purple curve) and CS powder (1B, purple curve) were included for reference.


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100

80

Tensile Strength (MPa)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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[CS+KER] [CEL+KER]

60

40

20

0 20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

% CEL or % CS

Figure 2. Plots of tensile strength as a function of concentration of CEL in [CEL+KER] composites (red circles) and of CS in [CS+KER] composites (black squares)


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300,000 250,000

Fluorescence Intensity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 0 350

370

390

410

430

450

470

490

510

530

Wavelength (nm)

Figure 3. Time dependent fluorescence spectra for Ciprofloxacin release from 100% KER (λexc = 324 nm)


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100

80

% Cumulative release

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

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60 100% CS

100% KER

100% CEL

40

20

0 0

2

4

6 time (h)

8

10

12

Figure 4.

Plots of release of CPX as a function of time from 100% CS (black curve with stars), 100% KER (purple curve with filled circles) and 100% CEL (red curve with filled triangles).


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80 60 40 20

100% CS

75:25 CS:KER

37.5:62.5 CS:KER

25:75 CS:KER



100

A

100

80

B

60 40 20

100% KER

100% CS

75:25 CS:CEL

50:50 CS:CEL

25:75 CS:CEL

100% CEL

0

0 0

2

4

6 8 time (h)

10

0

12

2

4

6 time (h)

8

10

12

100

100

C

80 60 100% KER

25:75 CEL:KER

75:25 CEL:KER

80:20 CEL:KER

40

D % Cumulative release


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

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80 60 50:10:40 CS:KER:CEL 40

40:20:40 CS:KER:CEL 30:30:40 CS:KER:CEL

20

20

20:40:40 CS:KER:CEL

100% CEL

10:50:40 CS:KER:CEL

0

0 0

2

4

6 8 time (h)

10

12

0

2

4

6 8 time (h)

10

12

Figure 5. Plot of release of CPX as a function of time from (A) [CS+KER] (A): (B) [CS+CEL]; (C), [CEL+KER]; and (D) [CS+KER+CEL] ACS Paragon Plus Environment

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1

Zero order model for 40:20:40 CS:KER:CEL

-0.2

ln(1-Mt/M∞)

Mt/M∞

First order model for 40:20:40 CS:KER:CEL

0.0

0.8 0.6 0.4

R2 = 0.9642 MSC = 1.5739

0.2

0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1

-0.4 -0.6 -0.8

R2 = 0.9820 MSC = 2.4761

-1.0

0 1.25

-1.2 0

0.25

Time (hrs)

0.75

1

1.25

Korsmeyer Peppas model for 40:20:40 CS:KER:CEL

0.75

Mt/M∞

0.50

0.25

0.5

Time (hrs)

Higuchi model for 40:20:40 CS:KER:CEL

0.75

Mt/M∞

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

Langmuir

R2 = 0.9967 MSC = 3.8935

0.50

0.25

R2 = 0.9935 MSC = 4.8180

0.00

0.00 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

t0.5

Figure 6.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (hrs)

Kinetics of release of CPX from 40:20:40 CS:KER:CEL plotted as zero order,, first order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer Peppas or Power law model


1

Langmuir

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Page 34 of 35

A

B


Page 35 of 35

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Langmuir

88x50mm (96 x 96 DPI)


Cellulose, Chitosan, and Keratin Composite

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