ANALYrICAL APPROACH
Probing the Mysteries o f Ancient
EGVPT Chemical Analysis o f a Roman Period Egyptian M u m m y
gated mummies using a variety of techniques, including destructive unwrapping and autopsy. Samples of human tissue and mummy wrappings have been examined, resulting in the discovery of an extraordinary amount of information about t h e health and diseases of ancient Egyptians and the materials and techniques used for embalming during different historical periods (2).
Mark L. Proefke, Kenneth L. Rinehart, Mastura Raheel, Stanley H. Ambrose, and Sarah U. Wisseman University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL 61801
Analysis of museum artifacts using nondestructive techniques has be come common as curators realize how much information can be extracted from a n object without affect ing its display quality. Questions regarding authenticity, date, provenience, or technology can often be answered by using simple radiography or surface analytical techniques such as scanning electron microscopy and X-ray fluorescence. Either no sampling is required or, as in the case of the Shroud of Turin, tiny samples suffice when using tandem accelerator mass spectroscopic dating ( I ) . Whereas early work focused on inorganic materials such as ceramics and metalwork, today paintings, textiles, and even Egyptian mummies a r e routinely subjected to interdisciplinary analysis. Egyptian mummies have been studied since the late 189Os, when radiography was employed for the first time. During the past 30 years, several universities have investi0003 - 2700/92/0364- 105N$02.50/0 0 1992 American Chemical Society
I
The University of Illinois mummy A mummy dating to the Roman period in Egypt (between the first and second centuries A.D.) was p u r chased in 1989 by the World Heritage Museum at the University of 11linois at Urbana-Champaign. A team of scientists from various disciplines conducted nondestructive tests on the mummy to learn more about Roman period embalming practices and about the age, sex, and medical history of the person inside the wrappings. Preliminary X-rays and two sets of computed tomography scans revealed that the mummy is that of a child who died between the ages of seven and nine. The body sustained fractures on the back of the skull and the rib cage, probably because of rough treatment after death and before mummification. There is evidence, however, that the embalmers took ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2, JANUARY 15,1992
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special care with the body once they began mummification. Although the viscera (internal organs) and brain were not extracted as i n earlier mummies, a carefully beveled and tapered cedar board was placed under the body inside the wrappings. The child's hands were separately wrapped, and extra packing was used over the collapsed chest and underneath the fractured skull (3). Imaging techniques revealed multiple layers of wrappings but little detail about the materials used in the actual embalming. The Greek historian Herodotus, i n Book 11, verses 86-88, tells us that linen was used for bandaging and that a variety of resins, gums, waxes, honey, and other substances held the bandages together. Because ancient Egypt was essentially a treeless country, the woods and resins had to be imported from other countries in northern Africa and from nearby western Asia. Bitumen is also mentioned in ancient texts as a component of embalming fluids (4). From studies of pre-Roman period mummies at the University of Pennsylvania (5) and the Manchester University Museum in England ( 4 ) , it is clear that embalming practices var ied widely. We were interested in
studying the embalming practices of the Roman period and in documenting the fluids and fabrics used. Small samples of the wrappings, wooden board, and crystallized resin were t a k e n from t h e feet of t h e mummy where the wrappings were loosest. While sampling, researchers noticed that the mummy was impregnated with resins, which made the wrappings brittle and the board very hard to penetrate with a drill. These observations, combined with the suspiciously early 14C date (Illinois State Geological Survey laboratory no. ISGS-2072: conventional date is 2140 f 160 radiocarbon years before present [RYBP]; calibrated date [corrected for isotopic fractionation, 14C half-life, and secular variations] is 190 B.C. f 210), made us wonder if bitumen was present in addition to resins (3). (Resins crystallize and harden with age, and bitumen also h a r d e n s w i t h age a n d oxidation.) Resin analysis The resins available in ancient Egypt were either t r u e resins, such as Chios turpentine (terebinth), mastic, and pine pitch, or gum resins, such as frankincense and myrrh (6). The latter were composed of a mixture of
Zharacteristic
aenoic
Figure 1. Low-resolution FAB mass spectrum of the mummy resin acid fraction. Asterisks denote matrix peaks.
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ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2, JANUARY 15,1992
resin and polysaccharide gum and were used less frequently as embalming fluids than were true resins. Each resin contains several characteristic terpenoic acids that can be used to identify the original source of the resin material (Table I). Most other materials used by the Egypt i a n s for mummification contain characteristic compounds that can be used to confirm their addition to the base resin. Bitumen is a mixture of numerous different saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, hetero compounds, and asphaltenes. Beeswax consists of 70% myricyl palmi t a t e (Cl,H,lCOOC,OH,,) and straight chain hydrocarbons. Plant waxes also contain straight chain hydrocarbons. Because we expected this mummy resin sample to be a complex mixture of polar terpenoic acids from the resins and nonpolar hydrocarbons from waxes and bitumen, we fractionated the sample before analysis. Using HPLC or GC to separate these two classes of materials was not an option because the carboxylic acids in the resin would bind irreversibly to the stationary phases. Also, the typical method of preparing methyl esters before chromatography might mask esters present in the sample. The simplest alternative was to first remove the resin acids by base extraction before chromatographic analysis. The resin sample was dissolved in chloroform and extracted with a saturated sodium bicarbonate solution to partition the acids into the aqueous phase, leaving the neutral and basic components i n the chloroform layer. The resin acids were then recovered by acidification of the aqueous layer and back extraction into chloroform. The initial chloroform layer containing the neutral and basic compounds was filtered and analyzed by GC/MS, and the polar acids were analyzed as a mixt u r e by fast atom bombardment (FAB)tandem MS. FABMS was chosen to identify the terpenoic acids in the acid fraction because of its ability to produce strong [M + HI' ions from polar, nonvolatile compounds. The low -resolution FAB mass spectrum is shown in Figure 1. The peaks marked with asterisks are from the matrix-in this case, a mixture of dithiothreitol and dithioerythritol. T h e absence of peaks above m/z 400 indicates a lack of triterpenoids in the sample, and t h u s we can eliminate terebinth, mastic, and frankincense as the resin source. The base peak at m/z 315 has
-
the molecular formula C,,H,,03, as determined by high-resolution peak matching (Table 11). The 20 carbons in this compound suggest that it is a diterpenoid. Two additional peaks were observed 16 mass units above and below the base peak. This 16-massunit difference was shown by highresolution FABMS to be oxygen, suggesting t h a t these three compounds are a series of diterpenoids differing in degree of oxidation. All three peaks showed a loss of 46 mass units (COOH and H), characteristic of carboxylic acids, and thus we identified the compounds as diterpenoic acids. The molecular formula bf the base peak contained one more oxygen atom and two fewer hydrogen atoms than dehydroabietic acid, suggesting that the unknown compound is a n oxo derivative of this very common diterpenoic acid.
\
1
/
)eh yd r oa biet ic acic :20"28C
The tandem FAB mass spectrum of the m / z 315 peak obtained from the crude resin mixture is shown in Figure 2a. Comparison of the product ions in the tandem mass spectrum with published data of E1 fragment ions of methyl dehydroabietate (7) shows that they are remarkably similar and indicates that the additional oxygen is most likely located on C-6 or (3-7. Oxidation a t c - 7 Seems much more likely; in fact, the 7-0x0 cornpound was found in a n archaeological resin sample by Beck et al. (8). The FAB tandem mass spectrum of the unknown acid methyl ester (prepared by the addition of methanolic HC1 to a n aliquot of the crude resin mixture) is identical to the spectrum obtained from a standard of methyl 7 - oxodehydroabietate. These results support the assigned structure. Structures of the other two diterpenoic acids were assigned by comparing the FAB tandem mass spectra of m / z 299 and 331 (Fig-
'3,
I!
..
'
111 18; y/
35
I
I
'1'
- , ...
26Y
I Figure 2. FABMS/MS product ion scans of the acids found in the mummy resin. (a) m/z 315: 7-Oxodehydroabietic acid; (b) m/z 299: A6-Dehydroabietic acid; (c) m/z 331: 15- Hydroxy-7-oxodehydroabietic acid.
ures 2b and 2c) with that of m / z 315 from 7-oxodehydroabietic acid (9). These compounds, A6-dehydroabietic acid and 15-hydroxy-7-oxodehydroabietic acid, are shown in Figure 2. The three compounds found in the mummy resin are all successive oxidations of the common diterpenoic acid, abietic acid. Because abietic acid is found in nearly all naturally occurring coniferous resins (IO),
these compounds firmly identifjr the material as a pine pitch. Identification of the specific conifer species used to prepare our mummy resin was not possible because of t h e highly oxidized state of the sample, We expected the neutral fraction to contain nonpolar components of bitumen and insect or plant waxes. Capillary GC/MS showed several n-alkanes with chain lengths of 19-33
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2, JANUARY 15,1992
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I 1 1
I tlgure 3. Distribution of n-alkanes found in the mummy resin.
I Ni M(
carbons (Figure 3), which were identified by retention time (vs. standards) and characteristic mass spectra (homologous fragments spaced 14mass units apart). The resin did not appear to contain plant or insect waxes, because substantially more odd than even hydrocarbons would be expected from the decarboxylation of even-carbon fatty acids. The fairly uniform distribution of odd and even hydrocarbons and the hydrocarbon chain lengths found in this sample are consistent with the presence of bitumen (4), which presumably was added to the resin. Trace metal analysis by plasma atomic emission spectroscopy confirmed the presence of bitumen in the sample. Vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum are three metals characteristic of petroleum (11, 12).The ratios of these metals in our mummy resin sample are similar to those reported for Dead Sea and Mesopotamian bitumens; concentrations of our metals a r e slightly lower because they were diluted with resin (see Table 111).The two right-hand columns present data from elemental studies of fluids from mummies embalmed in the Ptolemaic period. In these mummies, two out of three characteristic metals were found (4, 13). The addition of bitumen, with its ancient 108 A
10-200 ot availab
carbon, explains the early 14C date of the Illinois mummy. Textile analysis The only type of fiber reliably reported as having been used by the ancient Egyptians for mummy bandages is flax (14). Of the other natural fibers, cotton (originally from Ind i a ) a n d s i l k (from C h i n a ) a r e thought to have been used in Roman times from 30 B.C. to A.D. 200. Hemp, ramie, and kenaf were indigenous to Egypt. Wool, although available, was not used in temples or for burying the dead (15).Chemical solubility tests can identify cellulose fibers (e.g., cotton, flax, jute, hemp, and ramie) as a class, but wool and silk must be identified as individual protein fibers. However, all of these natural fibers have distinct morphologies and can be distinguished by optical or scanning electron microscopy. A macroscopic examination of the fabric from our mummy revealed that fabrics of three distinctly different weights were used. The outermost fabric was the heaviest, and the innermost layer was the lightest of t h e t h r e e . All f a b r i c s w e r e plain-woven structures of light beige to brown. I t is likely that the color is attributable to embalming fluids and the natural aging of fibers; therefore,
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2,JANUARY 15,1992
we did not analyze for dye. Fabrics and yarns were characterized according to ASTM methods D1910 (fabric weight), D1059 (yarn size), D1423 (yarn twist), and D2130 (fiber diameter). Modifications were made to accommodate different sample sizes. Results are presented in Table IV. The outermost fabric is heaviest (992 g/m2), and the weave is not balanced. That is, weave density (6 x 11 yarns/cm2) and yarn sizes (0.65 and 1.22 mm) are different in the warp (lengthwise) and weft (crosswise) directions. In the absence of selvages (fabric edges), it is not possible to distinguish warp and weft; therefore, in each case the lower number is given first. Yarn twist is in the S or clockwise direction. The intermediate fabric layer is also plain woven and rather heavy (768 g/m2), with yarns of similar diameter and S twist. The innermost layer i s a densely woven fabric (10 x 12 yarns/ cm2) of fine quality and highly uniform yarns of fine diameter. All fabric samples a r e 15-20 pm i n diameter. The fabric is stiff and brittle, but it probably was quite suitable for wrapping the body before its impregnation with embalming fluids. Chemical solubility tests (AATCC Test Method 20A-1989) of all fibers eliminated the presence of silk and wool, which disintegrate in 5% sodium hypochlorite. We confirmed that all fibers were cellulose because of their solubility in 70% sulfuric acid at 38 "C. SEM analysis The next step was to prepare the f i bers for scanning electron micros copy. Because the fabrics were coated with gummy resinous materials and dirt, and because they were very brittle, it was difficult to separate the fibers from the yarns. Small pieces of yarn from each type of fabric were individually soaked in water and agitated in a precision shaker to remove dirt and water - soluble materi als. The dried samples were then soaked in chloroform and shaken for 24 h to remove the resins. A few f i bers were teased out of the yarn from each fabric type for longitudinal and cross - sectional viewing. Full -length fibers could not be obtained because the specimens were too brittle. For a longitudinal view, the fiber was fixed on the metal stub with conductive double sticky tape and coated with carbon. For cross -sectional analysis, we used a 3-mm-thick copper plate in which a 1-mm hole was drilled. A
Figure 4. Longitudinal views of flax fibers from fabrics 2 and 3. Magnification: 700 x.
bundle of cleaned fibers was wrapped with acrylic fibers (to protect the brittle specimen from collapse during the slicing procedure) and forced into the copper plate orifice to obtain a tight fit. A plastic solution was used to fix the protruding bundle of fibers in an upright position and, with a sharp razor, the bundle was cut flush with the copper plate on both sides. The copper plate was then mounted on the metal stub and coated with carbon. The stubs were examined with a scanning electron microscope (SEMISI-40) using a n accelerating potential of 10 keV and a working distance of 8 mm. The longitudinal views of the intermediate and innermost fabric layers (Figure41 revealed a fiber morphology that corresponds to flax. The fibers are 15-20 l m and 10-12pm in diameter, respectively, with thick walls, nodes (swollen joints), and crosswise beat marks. These characteristic beat marks are caused when the stalks of flax are retted (rotted) and then beaten to remove the woody cover and obtain the fiber, which was the practice in the Roman period in Egypt. The cross section of the fibers, which are so brittle that they ruptured during slicing, clearly revealed the thick walls, small lumen, and rounded polygonal shape of flax fiber (Figure 5). The outermost fabric wrapping reveals a different fiber morphology. Figure6 shows the longitudinal view of a fiber, whereas Figure 7 shows the cross-sectional view. The fiber reveals crossmarks but no nodes like flax. Also, the cross section shows a n oval or bean-shaped structure with an elliptical lumen-a characteristic of ramie. Ramie is also characterized by small ridges, striations, and deep fissures, which are often observed even in the cross section. It is difficult to confirm with confidence that our sam-
ple is ramie because immature flax fibers also may have large lumens; however, we know that ramie was used during the Roman period in Egypt (14).Also of special interest is the fact that ramie is highly resistant to microorganisms and insects because it contains nonfibrous matter that is toxic to bacteria and h g i (26). It is possible that the Egyptians recognized this characteristic of ramie and deliberately used it as a protective covering for mummies. Bone analysis for diet reconstruction At the same time that resins and fabric were collected, bone fragments were collected from the mummy's feet for stable isotope analysis. Chemical and isotopic analyses of collagen and carbonate preserved in ancient bones have enabled archaeologists to reconstruct diets of humans and other animals (17,18). Such analyses, however, are not usually complicated by the presence of embalming fluids, nor have they been employed routinely on bone samples from Egyptian mummies. For these reasons, a brief account of bone chemistry is included despite our incomplete results. Isotopes of carbon are distributed in different plant groups according to their photosynthetic pathways. C, plants, such as maize and sorghum, fix atmospheric carbon using a carboxylation enzyme that functions optimally at high temperatures i n strong sunlight. C, plants, such as wheat, rice, fruits, and nuts, use a different enzyme that functions best at lower temperatures and light intensities. C, plants do not substantially discriminate against atmospheric 13C02 and thus have higher 13C/12C values than do C, plants. These stable isotope ratios are conventionally expressed using the delta
Figure 5. Cross-sectional view of flax fiber from fabrics 2 and 3. Magnification: 1400 x.
Figure 6. Longitudinal view of ramie fiber from fabric 1. Magnification: 700 x.
Figure 7. Cross-sectional view of ramie fiber from fabric 1. Magnification: 1400 x.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2, JANUARY 15,1992
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__
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ANALYTICAL APPROACH ( 6 ) notation in parts per thousand (permil) relative to the PDB (Pee Dee belemnite) fossil limestone for carbon and oxygen. C, and C, plants have 613C values averaging -12.5 a n d -26.5 permil, respectively, with no overlap between classes. The proportions of C, versus C, plants eaten directly by herbivores and humans, or indirectly by the consumption of meat, milk, and blood by carnivores or h u m a n s feeding on such animals, can be quantitated if the diet/tissue relationship is constant. The 613C value of bone collagen is enriched by - +5 permil relative t o the diet (17).Thus the grazing (C, grass-eating) zebra can be distinguished from t h e browsing (C, leaf-eating) giraffe in East Africa, and cattle-herding and camelherding pastoral peoples in the same area can be differentiated by their 613C values (19). Carbon in the mineral phase of bone occurs as carbonate and is either adsorbed on apatite crystal surfaces or incorporated as a substitute for phosphate or other ions. This carbonate is apparently derived from blood bicarbonate from energy metabolism, so its 6l"C value largely reflects t h a t of t h e energy source, which is mainly carbohydrates in herbivores and fats and proteins in carnivores. Bone carbonate is typically enriched in '"C relative to the diet by +12 permil in herbivores and +7 permil in carnivores. Thus the difference between the carbonate and collagen 6I3C values is +7 permil for herbivores but only +2 permil for carnivores. The difference is less for carnivores because fats, which are their main source of energy, are -- 6 permil more negative than proteins and carbohydrates (20). The difference in 6°C values between the inorganic and organic phases can therefore provide a n e s t i m a t e of t h e degree of carnivorousness. In northern Egypt all of the main food crops and most of the pasture grasses are C, because it is a winter rainfall zone. If the Illinois mummy has well-preserved collagen it should thus be possible to determine how much sorghum or other tropical grains (which would have been imported from the upper Nile or Sudan) and animal protein and fat were consumed during his or her lifetime. The first step in reconstructing the mummy's diet by stable isotope analysis was to determine whether the collagen was preserved or contaminated and whether the carbonate underwent diagenesis. Simple proce-
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dures for preparation and criteria for characterization of collagen have been developed that allow us to identify noncollagenous specimens (21). Coarse bone powder (in this case, 885 mg) is demineralized in 0.2 M HCl, treated with 0.125 M NaOH, heated to 95 "C in water at pH 3, filtered, a n d freeze-dried. In wellpreserved bone the residue is usually a pale amber crystalline gelatin, but when poorly preserved or contaminated it may be a brown or white powder or a yellowish sticky residue. The mummy collagen (i.e., t h e bone residue purported to be collagen) is a dirty yellow sticky residue, suggesting contamination, perhaps with embalming compounds. Two replicates of this residue, weighing 13.5 and 16.7 mg, respectively, were placed in Vycor tubes with CuO, Cu, and Ag foil; evacuated, sealed, and heated to 900 "C for 3 h in a muffle furnace; and slowly cooled over 18 h to convert the collagen to CO,, N,, and H,O. Gases were separated by cryogenic distillation, the volumes of N, and CO, were measured manometrically, and weight percent of C and N as well as the atomic C:N r a tios were calculated prior to mass spectrometric analyses. Modern human bone prepared this way averages 24.9% collagen by weight, and the mean C and N concentrations (wt. %) in collagen are 42.4% and 15.9%, respectively. The atomic C:N ratio of well-preserved collagen is 3.2 k 0.3. Stable isotope ratios become erratic outside this range. The mummy bone has 3.26% collagen by weight, which is within the range (1.0-3.5%) t h a t defines noncollagenous residues and where isotope ratios often fall outside the range of expected values. The C and N concentrations in the mummy collagen (2.09% a n d 0.57%, respectively) are a t the very lowest limits where dietary isotopic signatures are preserved. The atomic C:N ratio is 4.30, which implies that the material is noncollagenous. For carbonate isotopic analysis, a separate aliquot of bone powder (756 mg) is deproteinized with sodium hypochlorite (504% Clorox). Postmortem carbonates adsorbed on apatite crystal surfaces are removed by treatment with 1 M acetic acid (22). Carbonate is converted to CO, by reaction under vacuum with a n hydrous phosphoric acid. Irreversible postmortem carbonate contamination is reflected by unusually high carbonate carbon concentrations . Bone that has lost its fats and colla-
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2. JANUARY 15, 1992
gen is susceptible to diagenesis (23). Modern bone treated with Clorox and acetic acid is 0.89 k 0.16% carbonate C by weight. The Egyptian mummy bone has a normal value of 0.87% C. The 6I3C values of collagen and carbonate are -19.5 and -13.8 permil, respectively. There is insufficient N, for isotopic analysis. In summary, the noncollagenous composition of the mummy's bone residue makes it impossible to reconstruct the mummy's diet. His or her collagen and carbonate 613C values are nonetheless close to those expected for the typical Egyptian diet of bread and onions (C, foods), with little or no C, plant foods. The carbonate-collagen difference is +5.7 permil, which suggests a diet with little animal fat and protein. Although these results are not unexpected for a n Egyptian, the bone suffered considerable postmortem alteration and may fortuitously resemble the expected values. Future research All tests performed on the Illinois mummy to date either have been nondestructive or have been accomplished using very small samples collected from t h e a r e a of loosened wrappings around the feet. Many questions still remain about the sex, medical history, and cause of death of the child, and these might be a n swered if more invasive sampling or unwrapping were permitted in the future. It would be advisable to repeat the analysis of resins, fabrics, and bone on samples taken from further inside the wrapped body where the chance of contamination from dust, dirt, and other extraneous substances would be minimal. Bone samples or other tissues might also be obtained from areas less impregn a t e d by embalming fluids, a n d these might yield clearer evidence of the child's diet and the environment in Roman Egypt. The authors are grateful to Barbara Bohen, director of the World Heritage Museum, for access to the mummy, and to the Program on Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials for procuring the samples and coordinating the research.
References (1) Warner, M. Anal. Chem. 1989, 61, 101 A-103 A. (2) David, R.A.; Tapp, E. Evidence Embalmed; Manchester University Press: Manchester, England, 1984. (3) Wisseman, S.; Klepinger, L.; Keen, R.;
Raheel, M.; Barkmeier, J. In Archaeometry '90; Pernicka, E.; Wagner, G., Eds.; Birkhauser Verlag: Basel, Switzerland, 1990; pp. 345-53. (4) Benson, G.G.;Hemingway, S. R.; Leach, F. N. In Manchester Mummy Project; David, A. R., Ed.; Manchester University Press: Manchester, England, 1979; pp. 119-31. (5) Fleming, S. The E m t i a n Mummy: Secrets and Science; University Museum, University of Pennsylvania: Philadelphia, 1980. (6) Lucas, A.; Harris, J. R. Ancient E m tian Materials and Industries, 4th ed.; Histories and Mysteries of Man: London, 1989. (7) Enzell, C. R.; Wahlberg, I. Acta Chem. Scand. 1969,23, 871-91. (8) Beck, C. W.; Smart, C. J.; Ossenkop, D. J. In Archaeological Chemistry W, Advances in Chemistry 220; Allen, R. o.,Ed.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1989; pp. 369-80. (9) Proefke, M. L.;Rinehart, K. L. J. Am. SOC.Mass. Spectrom., in press. (10) Simonsen, J.; Barton, D.H.R. The Terpenes; Cambridge University: Cambridge, England, 1952; Vol. 3, p. 380. (11) Speilmann, P. E. J. Egypt. Archaeol. 1932, 18, 177-80. (12) Marschner, R. F.; Wright, H. T. In Archaeological Chemistry 11, Advances in Chemistry 171; Carter, G . F., Ed.; ACS:
Washington, DC, 1978; pp. 150-71. (13) Cockburn, A.; Cockburn, E. Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, England, 1980; p 61-62. (14) Wilson, K.A k s t o r y of Textiles; Westview Press: Boulder, CO, 1984; p. 113. (15) Lucas, A. Ancient E m t i a n Materials and Methods, 4th ed.; Edward Arnold Ltd.: London, 1962. (16) Joseph, M.L. Introduction to Textile Science, 5th ed.; Holt, Rinehart, and Winston: New York, 1986. (17) Van Der Merwe, N. J. Am. Sci. 1982, 70, 209-15. (18) DeNiro, M. J. Am. Sci. 1987, 75, 18291. (19) Ambrose, S.H.J. Hum. Evol. 1986, 15, 707-31. (20) Krueger, H. W.; Sull.ivan, C. H. In Stable Isotopes in Nutritzon; Turnlund, J. E.; Johnson, P. E., Eds.; ACS Symposium Series 258; American Chemical S o c i e t y : W a s h i n g t o n , DC, 1 9 8 4 ; pp. 205-22. (21) Ambrose, S.H.J. Archaeol. Sci. 1990, 17,431-51. (22) Lee Thorp, J.; Van Der Merwe, N. J.; Brain, C. K. J. Hum. Evol. 1989, 18,18389. (23) Sillen, A. In The Chemistry of Prehistoric Bone; Price, T. D., Ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, England, 1989; pp. 211-29.
Cholinesterases
Structure, Function, Mechanism, Genetics, and Cell Biology resenting the proceedings of the Third International Meeting on Cholinesterases, this inaugural volume in the Conference Proceedings Series offers a wealth of new information on current and future cholinesterase research, including important advances resulting from new concepts and methodologies such as monoclonal antibodies and molecular genetics. The volume's 49 full papers and 140 poster papers are divided into six sections covering:
P
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Mark L. Proefke (center) received a B.S. degree in chemistryfrom the University of Michigan and has just completed his Ph. D. in analytical chemistry at the University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. His research interests lie in solving structural problems in bioorganic systems using FABMS and MS/MS. Kenneth L. Rinehart (left) is a professor of chemistry and a university scholar at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where he has been a member of the faculty since 1954.His research interests center on the chemistry of biologically active natural (marine-derived or fermentation) products. Mastura Raheel (second from right) is a professor of textile science at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, where she has taught textile chemistry and textile physics for 13 years. Her research focuses on structure-property relationships in fibrous systems and chemical mod$ication of cellulose fibers. She received her Ph.D. in textile science from the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis/St. Paul. Stanley H. Ambrose (right) received a Ph.D. in anthropologyfrom the University of California, Berkeley, in 1984. He joined the faculty of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1985.As an associate professor of anthropology, he supervises archaeological, ecological, and paleodietary research in the department's stable isotope laboratoty. Sarah U.Wisseman (second from left) is assistant director of the Program on Ancient Technologies and Archaeological Materials (ATAM). She received a Ph.D. in classical and Near Eastern archaeology from Bryn Mawr College (PA) in 1981.Her research focuses on the applications of instrumental methods to archaeological and art historical problems, Particularly those dealing with pottery, metalwork, and mummies from the ancient Mediterranean.
Polymorphism and Structure of Cholinesterases Cellular Biology of Cholinesterases Gene Structure and Expression of Cholinesterases Catalytic Mechanism of Cholinesterases: StructureFunction Relationships of Anticholinesterase Agents, Nerve Agents, and Pesticides Pharmacological Utilization of Anticholinesterase Agents. Neuropathology of Cholinergic Systems Noncholinergic Roles of Cholinesterases
This volume will be of great interest to a broad spectrum of readers, including those interested in the evolution of cholinesterase catalysis, researchers developing agricultural chemicals, scientists seeking up-to-date information on the treatment of glaucoma and such neurological diseases as Alzheimer's disease and myasthenia gravis, those interested in the design of drugs to bind the enzyme itself or to cholinergic receptors, as well as those who follow the progress toward complete structure elucidation of cholinesterases. Jean Massoulie, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Editor Francis Bacou, lnstitut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Editor Eric Barnard, Medical Research Council,
Editor
Arnaud Chatonnet, lnstitut National del la Recherche Agronomique, Editor Bhupendra P. Doctor, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Editor Daniel M. Quinn, University of Iowa, Editor Conference Proceedings Series 41 4 pages (1 991) Clothbound ISBN 0-8412-2008-5 $89.95 American Chemical Society Distribution Office. Dept. 13 1155 Sixteenth St.. N.W. Washington, DC 20036
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ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, VOL. 64, NO. 2, JANUARY 15,1992
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