Jose D. G O ~ ~ Z - l b a n e z Wesleyan University Middletown, Connecticut
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Chemical Education Activities in lbero-America
It is rather common to consider "Latin America" as an "isolated cultural phenomenon, tending to forget that its culture, besides the very important indigenous component, also has another component with deep roots in Europe. This is not unlike our own. But we tend not to search beyond the "local color," and this brings us, in our diplomatic as in our cultural approaches, to rather awkward situations. As Walter Lippmann has pointed out somewhere, we fail to recognize that our attempts a t a "North-South" axis lack historical perspective. Our relationships cannot ignore our common European component, and must be based on a mutual respect for our traditions. There is in Ibero-America a long university and cultural tradition, starting even before the first university, San Marcos in Lima, was created in 1551. (Some religious colleges preceded its founding and so did the University of Mexico, although this last did not start functioning until the same year.) Other universities were created in rapid successionSanto Domingo, Bogoti, San Carlos in Guatemala (1676). Theseuniversities, whether they were marked by religious hiis or not, whether they did or did not penetrate the social structure, did not always exert a reactionary influence. Law, medicine, philosophy, and theology were the subjects mainly taught. But indigenous languages were cultivated and, in spite of much scholastic inPresented as part of the Symposium on International Chemical Educational Activities before the Division of Chemical Education at the 146th Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Philadelphia, Pa., April, 1964.
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fluence, much of the English and French thinking of the eighteenth century penetrated many of the universities and left in them an indelible mark. Even where scientific inquiry went into a definite decline (or was not even fomented), the literary, artistic, and humanistic tradition has remained strong. We could certainly benefit from a better knowledge of it. Scientific "activities" and accomplishments abound in Ihero-America, from colonial times to the present: in geography, cartography, botany, mathematics, biology, and physics. It was through experimentetion that Bartolome de Medina, about 1580, discovered and introduced the method of amalgamation for silver, a method which lateron fouud its ways into Europe. Theworks on metallurgy and its improvement during the colonial period are remarkahleand culminatewith the publication by Alvaro Alonso Barba in 1640 of the classic "Arte de 10s Metales," where he describes further advances in metallurgy. It was an age of discovery, description, and empirical experimentation. But there were more systematic approaches also. I n 1792, during the period of the Enlightenment, the Real Colegio de Mineria was founded in Mexico City. Its first director was Don Fausto de Elhuyar, who had previously (1784) discovered and isolated, with his brother Juan Jose in Spain, the metal wolfram. The School was a center of scientific research and activity, and it was here in 1801 that Don AndrAs Manuel del Rio, working with the "brown leads'' of Zimapin, discovered vanadium, which he first called "panchromium." Additional illustrations could be given; of all these and other activities in chemistry, there is an extensive bibliography. Mary
Elvira Weeks has written a good but incomplete account.' Alexander von Humholdt described some of the activities of the period mentioned in that text. Nor mere the activities strictly "local." Of the names mentioned here, Don Andrks Manuel del Rio (author of a classic on "Oryctognosy") after the Mexican independence continued his work for a time at the American Philosophical Society, and became president of the Geological Society of Philadelphia. What we know about the attitude of Professor Torbern Bergman (1735-1784) of Uppsala a t the end of his life toward some of the fundamental and controversial questions in chemistry a t the time, is contained in a manuscript found a few years ago by Professor Ryden in BogotB. The manuscript is a copy of the original notes (apparently lost) kept by Don Juan Jose de Elhuyar of his discussions with Bergman on advanced chemistry and made by one of Elhnyar's descendant^.^ The cultural exchange existent a t the time of the enlightenment between Sweden and Spain (hence with the American colonies) is an interesting story in itself. We should remind ourselves that there is a record of achievements and a strong awareness of traditions, in Ibero-America. Present Universities
nfally universities are organized into independent (as well as isolated) "Faculties"; one of their main problems is often the formation of departments in the basic sciences which can coordmate effort, save maupower, and promote the development of new professions in the basic sciences. Such development has great implications for the educational process and for the national progress. The influence presently exerted by vested interests fighting against the formation of such independent but coordinating departments is great; nevertheless, some changes are takmg place. The first chemistry department which succeeded in centralizing the teaching of chemistry in the whole university and in formulating a program for the formation of "chemists" was that of the University of Concepci6n in Chile, in 1960. Also the University of Costa %ca and the University of Honduras are doing the same thing through the creation of a center of General Studies. The University of El Salvador has recently created university departments in the basic sciences. The University of Recife, in Brazil, has just coordinated the teaching of chemistry into a department, but by statute the department will not have the authority to grant diplomas. The very dynamic and researchoriented "department" of chemistry a t the University of Sao Paulo is trying to attract to the fold the chemists in other "faculties" by building a spacious and attractive chemistry building a t the University City. Other universities are trying to move in the same direction, but the dispersion which still prevails must be taken into consideration in all attempts to collaborate in the development and teaching of chemistry in IberoAmerica. Even though their cultural background may be the
'WEEKS,M m ELVIRA,"Discove~of the Elements," 6th ed.. Chemical Education Publisbine - Co.. , Easton. Pa.. 1956. ¶see F~enan,ARNE,AND RYDEN, STIO,~ychno~'1959, Uppsala, 1960, pp. 161-208.
same, the evolution of the d i e r e n t countries has been determined by d i e r e n t social, economic, and political factors. Consequently we find extreme diversity in the scientific development and attainments of the existing universities, the centers of intellectual activity in the respective countries. The factors mentioned have conditioned the extent to which each university has remained in contact with the social and cultural needs of its environment, and the extent to which the university has contributed, both in material and human resources, toward the general improvement of education. Some universities have a very high level of performance (sometimes a t the expense of a wastefully high student "mortality" during the first year). In others the standards have suffered. It is my feeling that in the improvement of the educational process a t all levels, the university has to play a crncial role and that the changes have to start there. Quite often the difficulties are attributed to lack of means or of buildings; hut that is not always the case, and grandiose programs of help can be lost through bureaucracy and apathy. The pressing educational problem cannot be solved by the expediency (often encouraged) of building more schoolhouses. The danger is that they may remain empty or, even worse, that they may help perpetuate (though in a more glamorous setting) the existing conditions. This situation is not a local one; it is rather universal. The urgent need is for well qualified teachers and more of them, a t all levels exposed in their training to the fact that the essence of science is an endless questioning. The Honduras Program: CUEG
The program developed in Honduras may serve to illustrate some of the changes going on in Central America. In Honduras the need for improving and extending general education has been real and urgent. Honduras has a large proportion of illiteracy. Even a t the primary school level, reflecting the socio-economic situation, the student mortality is shockingly large. In 1957, the restoration of autonomy to the university made possible, under the leadership of an active and enthusiastic group, the initiation of a reform which would bring the university more in harmony with modern thinking and with the national reality. Members of this group did not wait for large economic help. They initiated a program, with the resources a t hand and with the technical assistance of UNESCO, which may well be a model one. Tribute should be paid to the continuing leadership of Iug. Edgardo Sevilla, present Vice-Rector of the University. The university reform centers around the newly created "Centro Universitario de Estudios Generales" (CUEG), an "independent and flexible" unit, which will integrate and concentrate all human and material resources. It will gather in a single department all professors in a given field and will impart the same content matter to all students, regardless of their intended final profession. The center will embrace the humanities, the arts, and the sciences, and each department will work toward its own scientific and professional ends as well as being of service to other "faculties." It will give to the development of the humanities the same importance as that given to the sciences: sociology will be taught as sociology, chemistry as chemistry. It will attempt to Volume 41, Number 1 1 , November 1964
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develop for the future an atmosphere favorable to the pursuit of scientific inquiries. Both students and teachers are to participate on a full-time basis, thus contributing to the develo~mentof a true university spirit. Since the resources were limited, the first major effort was concentrated in the establishment of laboratories in the basic sciences. Here the help and advice of the UNESCO Mission under the direction of Dr. Jos6 Martinez Cros, and the cooperation of Drs. Mesias Huaringa Ricci and Raul Pardo from Peni, were invaluable in the development, with the resources at hand, of material and equipment for biology, chemistry, and physics. Inkwells, empty tin cans, clothespins, ete., were utilized. Empty aspirm tubes served as test tubes; a bottle cut in half provided both a "beaker" and a L'funnel." The laboratory program developed includes a fair number of quantitative experiments. All this was initiated before our CHEMS, PSSC, etc., were well established in this country. Teachers were sought from outside. The first one in chemistry, a young and recent graduate from the New Mexico Highlands University, Ernesto Baca, contributed greatly to the formulation of a modern and realistic course. Also in Honduras, and through the initiative of the UNESCO Mission for Technical Assistance, the "Escuela Superior del Profesorado 'Francisco Morazin,' " was created in 1956 by the Military Junta governing at the time. It was to be a center for the diffusion of culture and for the preparation of specialized professors of secondary education. At the "Escuela Francisco Morazin," Dr. Mesias Huaringa Ricci, from UNESCO, is carrying on an admirable job of improving secondary science education, among other things by designing and developing teaching aids and laboratory equipment for secondary institutions out of cheap household equipment, and holdmg workshops for teachers on the building of such equipment. As the secondary schools in Tegucigalpa and Comayagiiela, D.C., do not have space available for a laboratory, 700 students from such schools receive-in the building of the Francisco Morazin School and under the supervision of Dr. Huaringa-weekly laboratory instruction in biology, chemistry, and physics. The interest and enthusiasm developed by the participating students is great and highly rewarding. Moreover, in March of 1963 an agreement was signed between the Ministry of Education and the University of Honduras for the purpose of "offering better preparation of future professors of science at the Francisco MorazBn School for Teachers." Future teachers of secondary education will receive'their h t two years of training at the CUEG, taking courses exclusively in subject matter and in common with all other university students. Only the last year in the three-year sequence of studies will include courses in pedagogy and methodology. The plan, and the agreement, constitute a decisive step in the right direction-a step almost revolutionary in the context of what has been the traditional training of teachers of secondary education. Good education demands appropriate housing and equipment; yet the first step in the improvement of education need not he impressive buildmgs or up-todate equipment. The dynamic and devoted group at
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Tegucigalpa has developed a meaningful program with the small resources at hand, and has not been stopped by the absence of proper housing. They can actually use all kinds of help. I for one wish, among other things, that the work of Dr. Huari~lgacould get independent support and be extended to the whole Central American region. I t takes devoted people and that is what is needed first and foremost everywhere: devoted teachers. The CSUCA Program
L i e Honduras, the University of El Salvador has initiated far-reaching reforms under the leadership of the new rector, Dr. Fabio Castillo. The University of Guatemala started in January, 1964, a program of General Studies. A departmental structure is in existence at Costa Rica. All four of these universities, together with that of Nicaragua, have organized themselves in order to coordinate their efforts and to pool their resources. CSUCA, the Consejo Superior Universitario Centro Americana, has devised a plan for the regional integration of university education. It envisages intergration at the undergraduate and at the graduate level, and the establishment of Regional Schools and Centers of Research which would serve the whole region, thus avoiding duplication of effort. A certain similarity in the background and initial preparation of the students at the different universities is desirable, so that problems arising from exchanges and transfers can be minimized. Both students and teachers are to be exchanged, and different specialties will he emphasized in dierent universities. I t is at the present moment a very ambitious program; the &st step to be taken is to establish on a firm basis the "common core" of the five universities. CSUCA -.- and the Aeencv " " for International Development concluded an agreement in 1962 for the regional development of higher education along the general objectives stated above. Both CSUCA and AID have requested the National Science Foundation t o provide advice and assistance for the immediate launching of programs to strengthen education in the sciences and mathematics. Attention is to be focused on the improvement of the first two years of undergraduate studies, and the NSF has made an extensive survey of present and future needs. The most urgent need, in all the cases, is to find visiting teachers from abroad, willimg to spend a year or more actively engaged in directing and developing modern courses, equipment, and programs, and in preparing a group of local collaborators who can continue the work thus initiated. The ACS has contracted with the NSF to promote these aspects of the program dealing with chemical e d ~ c a t i o n . ~An informal ACS advisory committee has been active in searchmg for teachers and in devising ways in which chemists from the United States can participate in, and contribute to, the betterment of chemical education in Central America. This is probably the Grst time that the ACS has taken part in a program of such a nature abroad, and such collaboration may be extremely significant in developing a true
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See also in this SymposiumHAENISCH, EDWARD R.,THIS JOUR(1964).
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scientific link between the nations. The NSF and ACS may he in a unique position to hring scientists and universities together. Their dialogue, free of political connotations, can best contribute to a better understanding. Secondary Education Programs and Teachers Seminars
In many cases primary and secondary education and preparation of the appropriate teachers are under the rigid control of the Ministries of Education, resentful and suspicious of any interference on the part of the autonomous universities. In the continuous political and economic turmoil with which many countries are confronted, there has been neither time nor interest on the part of political organizations to bring reforms which are quite often opposed by vested interests. It is very comforting to find in every country active individuals and groups advocating innovations, and signs of change are already perceptible. Among the efforts being made to improve conditions a t the secondary level, special mention should be made here of the outstanding job done by IBECC (Institute Brasileiro de EducacSo, CiBncia e Cultura) under the direction of Dr. Isaias Raw. The work of IBECC should be known widely. Sponsored by UNESCO, IBECC during the last ten or twelve years has dedicated considerable efforts, though with limited resources, to the planning, development, and production of economic and accessible laboratory equipment. The institute has worked directly with teachers, providing them with information, and has organized for them courses, seminars and workshops. It has worked directly with students, providing them with public* tions and inexpensive small laboratory kits. These activities are nonprofit. The equipment is supplied to the schools or to the government a t cost. The Ministry of Education gives the equipment free to both private and public schools. IBECC has put out a large number of publications giving modern information on individual topics. It initiated the publication of a periodical for teachers"Cultusn-and puts out five journals (on physics, chemistry, general science, biology, and computers) for the use of students. It has started traveling laboratories to hring laboratory experiments to rural schools and to challenge the teachers. Help in the form of sophisticated yet economical equipment is also provided to the universities. The contributions to education made by IBECC are very significant. I am inclined to think that the present policy of the Ministry of Education of Brazil in relaxing the previous rigidity and uniformity of the secondary school programs may have been in part accelerated by the accomplishments of IBECC. Grants from the Government and from the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations have helped IBECC, hut additional help is needed. The original workshop has become a regular factory. It was natural that the success of the efforts carried out in this country under the sponsorship of the NSF (CBA, CHEMS, PSSC, etc.) would provoke a great deal of interest abroad. Professors from many countries have attended and participated in some of the summer institutes for high school teachers held in
this country. Also regional institutes have been held abroad. I n Ibero-America, the first regional institute in CBA was held in Santiago, Chile, in 1961 under the direction of Professor Harold Behrens, sponsored by OAS and the NSF. Leaders of the CBA program in the USA were visitingprofessors, and there were participants from several countries. A similar Summer Institute was held the same year in San JosB, Costa Rica, and again (based on CBA) in 1963, under Professor Gi Chaverri's diection. The last two institutes' participants were from Central America. In the summer of 1963, a CBA summer course was given in SSo Jose dos Campos, under the auspices of IBECC and the Ford Foundation. Professor Ernesto Giesbrecht was the director and visitors from the CBA staff participated for three weeks. In Argentina, the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y TBcnicas organized summer institutes for chemistry teachers in 1962 and in 1963. Financial assistance was provided by the Ford Foundation, and ProfessorsJorge A. Brieux and Ariel H. Guerrero developed a program of their own devoted primarily to the presentation of recent topics in organic and inorganic chemistry. As a result of a course for secondary teachers of chemistry organized in 1963-64 in Mexico City, a new syllabus has been prepared for trial during the next academic year in the Mexican secondary schools. More recently a "National Council for Chemical Education" has been created. Sponsored by the Institute for Scientific Research, the School of Chemistry of the University of Mexico, and the Mexican Chemical Society, the group is in the process of formulating an ambitious program on a national scale for the improvement of chemistry teaching a t all levels. Smaller courses, sometimes centered around dumni of the above or of U. S. Institutes, have also taken place in scattered places through Mexico and Central and South America. All these courses and institutes have served as catalysts in the increasing movement for improvement and change. The materials developed in this and other countries should be made generally available. The problem of makiig available acceptable translations should he faced, organized, and promoted, perhaps avoidimg expensive commercial versions a t this time. Still more important, we should avoid the dangerous belief that literal transplantation of programs developed elsewhere are the solution to the local problems. Secondary education is rigidly structured in most places, and there are wide diierences between individual countries. Teachers with poor preparation participating in short summer institutes may he too concerned with the introduction of a new method rather than with a broad, independent approach to the subject. Existing programs should he adapted or, better yet, regional programs should be developed. One of the reasons for the acceptance of the new programs in the United States is the development of a cooperative spirit between university and high school people. The same feeling of participating in the creation of something which is new and original is also necessary here. Meaningful programs can he best developed by taking advantage of the materials already available, and by taking into account the local structure and traditions. Volume 41, Number 1 1 , November 1 9 6 4
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The leadership exists, but it needs help and encouragement. Such was the consensus in March, 1964, a t an informal meeting in Rio de Janeiro, of NSF representatives and some leading South American chemists. Advanced Programs
This paper deals only with "educational" activities, but there is an awareness everywhere that research and good teaching go together and are the support and complement of each other. If we are to establish a meaningful, mutually profitable, inter-American cooperation, we must establish it at all levels. There is much to be gained by it. Research is very much in evidence in some places, and in those places programs of research, entirely local or cooperative, should be encouraged and sponsored. In other places research is totally absent, and there is no need to uncover the reasons for it. Here I would like to see the local institutions and the foundations proceed to the promotion of research in a realistic fashion, with the awareness that a basic training program can be consolidated and can gain perspective only when guided by inquiring minds which exemplify a research attitude to the generations they are helping to mold.
one; the efforts to compensate for this weakness are the most obvious ones. There is an eager and honest desire on the part of different foundations and organizations (Ford, Rockefeller, OAS, AID, etc.) to contribute to the betterment of education in Ibero-America. The magnitude of the aid already given is very substantial, and the significant results obtained should be acknowledged and recognized. I cannot help but wish there were more coordination and better exchange of information among the agencies, if only to avoid duplication of effort. The important thing is not who does the good, but that good is being done. Very often small but widely scattered programs which recognize ability to do a speczc project may be more effective than large scale, well meant but general, projects. And we should hope that in the very near future those few in the respective countries who have the means will accept as one of their most important responsibilities the need to contribute to support the national effort in education. The problem is both economic and social. Roads, bridges, dams, industries--all are needed everywhere in order to raise the standard of living. In my own list of priorities, education comes first: "it constitutes in every society the basic instrument for its economic and social transformation. " 4
Conclusions
I have reported on some of the activities going on south of the United States. Let me add that the problem in Ibero-America is in great measure an economic
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' Conference an Education and Development, Santiago Chile, March, 1962.
