CHEMICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA FROM THE EARLIEST DAYS TO 1820*
Chemistry occupied the attention of the first settlers in America. At Jamestown the manufacture of glass and other materials was begun soon after the colonists lauded. In New England John Winthrop, Jr., who came to Boston in 1631, established several chemical industries, the most important being salt and iron. Throughout his life he was involved in many chemical exploitations, and he was the forerunner of many who utilized chemistry in manufacturing needed substances. Winthrop was also interested in the relation of chemistry to medicine. This joint field, though somewhat empirical, was for many years the only one in which chemistry played a conspicuousrble. As a matter of fact the beginnings of chemical education in America were due to physicians. At first they gave private instruction to prospective young doctors. Later the physicians, especially those who had studied in Europe, started medical schools, and it was in these schools, which were usually connected with wellestablished educational institutions, that chemistry gained its first firm foothold in America. In some institutions chemistry was introduced as a part of the course in natural philosophy or natural J0IXN'vlNT'rROP~ history, while in a very few chemistry 7,TL. ...- V,,~,Y?.FP .,..... ... .. began as a distinct subject. First American chemist and forerunner It is my purpose in this Paper to in chemical education in America. give an account of the establishment of chemical education in America and its development to about 1820. Emphasis will he laid on major factors, leaving the detailed treatment for another paper. Prior t o 1820 about forty educational institutions had been established in America, and in over half chemistry was a part of the curriculum. Records of the dates when chemistry was authorized, introduced, or first taught in certain institutions are incomplete, and in a few cases documentary information is lacking altogether. Hence some of the dates in this paper may undergo revision as authentic information is obtained. The date when the teaching of chemistry actually began in certain institutions is likewise open to verification because of douhfful or contradictory records.
* Presented before the Divisions of Chemical Education and History of Chemistry of the A. C. S. at Buflalo, N. Y., September 1, 1931. 677
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Among the forty or so colleges and universities established before 1820. chemistry was authorized or introduced into about half in the years stated below. though in some cases the date of actual instruction is probably later: King's College (later Columbia University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I767 University of Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769 College of William and Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1774 HarvardUniversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783 College of New Jersey (later Princeton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 DartmouthCollege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798 Transylvania Univenity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799 . University of Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1800) 1801 YaleUniversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802 Washington College (later Washington and Lee) . . (probably before 1805) Washington and Jefferson College. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .: . . . . (1802) 1806 BowdoinCollege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808 College of South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811 Unioncollege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1811 BrawnUniversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1811 Dickinsan College. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811 RutgersCollege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1812 Hamilton College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812 Williams College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812 St.JohnsCollege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813 University of Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1809, 1813) Georgetown University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816 University of North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819 Western University of Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819 Hampden-Sidney (before 1820, but date uscertain)
Within the next twenty years (1821-39) the roster includes about twentyfive more institutions . The list just given does not contain the name of an academy or other kind of secondary school. Records of the establishment of the earliest secondary schools are sadly incomplete, or at least this kind of historicaleducational material has not yet been adequately culled from reliable sources. From available data it appears that only a few secondary schools were established prior to 1820, and of this small number only seven academies gave instruction in chemistry, among them being: Onondaga Academy, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clinton Grammar School, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hartwick Seminary, New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassarn Private Academy, North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1813 1815 1815 1819
Within the next ten years (1821-30) about twenty more academies and schools were added, and by 1840 the total number was about thirty-five . The content of courses in chemistry, wherever given, before 1820 was meager, and the methods, except in a few cases, were superficial and rudi-
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mentary. One of the difficulties was the scarcity of suitable apparatus, practically none being available for students and the lecture apparatus being crude, clumsy, and mainly for spectacular effects. Another difficulty was the lack of teachable textbooks; prior to 1820 (1790-1819) there were approximately twenty-five textbooks of American publication-all kinds and all editions. * Still another difficulty was the dearth of competent teachers. These difficulties are not unknown a t the present time! Some of the colleges and universities, however, made definite and progressive contributions to chemical education. This paper is limited largely to the work in these institutions. Records at the College of William and Mary, which was established in JAMES M ~ o r s o x 1693, are incomplete but they indiProfessor of Natural Philosophy who cate that chemistry was taught there gave lectures in chemistry in the College of William and Mary as early as early as 1774 by Bishop James as 1774. Madison, who was professor of natural + philosophy and at one time president of the college. The chemistry was a part of his course in natural philosophy. Notes taken by several students * Some of these textbooks are described or mentioned in this article under Rush, Woodhouse, Mitehill, Spalding. Gorham, Hare. Cooper, and Silliman. Other important titles are "Chemical and Economic Esays" (1790) by John Pennington; "Chemical Syllabus" (1799) by John Vaughan; "Elements of Chemistry" by A. L. Lavoisier, trans, by Thomas Kerr (1st American edition. 1799); "Plain Discourses on the Laws and Properties of Matter; Containing the Elements or Principles of Modern Chemistry" (1806) by Thomas Ewell; "Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry" by Joseph Black (1st American edition, 1806); "Elements of Chemistry" by M. I. A. Chaptal (date of 1st reprint of English translation uncertain, 4th American edition. 1807 by James Woodhouse); "Conversations on Chemistry" by Mrs. Marcet (1st American reprint, 1809, and later editions by Thomas Cooper, 1818); "Philosophy of Experimental Chemistry" (1813) by James Cutbush; "System of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry" by Frederick Accum, edited by Thomas Cooper (2nd American edition. 1814); "System of Chemistry" by Thomas Thomson, edited by Thomas Cooper (1st American edition, 1818); "Practical Chemistry'' (1818) hy M. J. B. Otfrla, trans. by James M. Coxe. Soon after 1820 many reprints as well as original books began to appear and within the next decade the total number was doubled. Additional information may be found in Smith's "Old Chemistries" and in Barnard's "American Tent Books." See ref. (60) in Fay's "History of Teaching of Chemistry," J. CHEM.EDUC.,8, 1558 (Aug., 1931).
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who attended his lectures a t a later date are preserved in the library a t William and Mary, and show that lectures on chemistry were an integral part of the course in natural philosophy. Records of the establishment of chemistry a t Princeton are accurate and complete. The first professor of chemistry there was John Maclean (I), ( 4 ( I ) . He studied chemistry in Edinburgh (with Black), London, and Paris. In Paris he met Lavoisier and other French chemists and adopted their views. I n 1795 he came to Philadelphia, and Benjamin Rush, at that time head ia School, learning of his enthusiasm of the faculty of the ~ h i l a d e l ~ hMedical for chemistry, advised him to settle a t Princeton. Here he delivered a short course of lectures on chemistry, which produced such-a favorable impression that on October 1, 1795, he was elected professor of chemistry and natural history in the University. Maclean not only taught the doctrines of Lavoisier at Princeton but defended them vigorously. In 1795 he published "Two Lectures on Combustion, Supplementary t o a Course of Lectures, read a t Nassau Hall, contain, ing an Examination of Dr. Priestley's Cotpiderations on the Doctrine of Phlogiston and the Decomposition of Water." These lectures form an interesting chapter in the history of phlogiston and show that Maclean taught correct chemistry. JOHN M A C L E A N For about twelve years, Maclean's Professor of Chemistry in Princeton instruction in chemistry was given by Universitv from 1i95 to 1812, lectures and experiments, without the use of a textbook, but upon the publication in this country of Henry's "Epitome of Chemistry," edited with notes by Benjamin Silliman in 1808, Maclean adopted it as a textbook. Maclean left Princeton and went t o William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1812, where he taught chemistry until his death two years later. The first of a group of men who taught chemistry in Philadelphia was Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) ( I ) , ( 4 ) , (13). He gave lectures in chemistry in the Philadelphia Medical School as early as 1769. Rush was the first professor of chemistry in America, that is, he was the first man to teach only chemistry from a regularly appointed position in an educational institution of recognized standing. (There is some evidence that James
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Smith, M.D., was appointed to teach chemistry and materia medica in King's College in 1767.) Rush having been a student of Joseph Black in Edinburgh for two years (1766-68) was highly regarded as a chemist. His reputation in scientific, social, and political circles drew attention to the importance and need of instruction in chemistry. He was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, and (in 1799) treasurer of the United States Mint. He wrote books and essays, delivered sneeches. and was a sort of ~olitical BENJAMIN RUSH and scientific dictator. His succesProfessor of Chemistry in the Philasion of influential positions opened delphia Medical School. He gave lecthe way for him to render fundamental tures inchemistry as as 17CS. service to the struggling science of chemistry, and, like most of the public men of his time, he seldom failed to take prompt advantage of his opportunities. Besides attracting a t t e n t i o n t o chemistry by his varied service, Rush laid a foundation stone of chemical education in America. This was his book, "Syllabus of acourseof Lectures on Chemistry,'' which was published in 1770. It is doubtless the first book of this kind written by an American teacher and published in this country. Several editions were issued and for many years this brief book was the only available American textbook in chemistry. One of the professional associates of Rush was Caspar Wistar (17011818) ( 1 ) . He, too, was connected with the Philadelphia Medical School, first as orofessor of chemistrv in 1789 TITLEPAGEoa RUSE'SSYLLABUS, THE and later (1793) as mofessor of anatFIRSTAMERICAN BOOKOP THISKIND
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omy. Like Rush he was an excellent teacher and a versatile man, especially in science. He was long the vice president of the American Philosophical Society and in 1815-three yrars hcfore his (lrath he, succrtdrd Thomas Jrffersot~81s its president. D u r i n ~the greater part oi his career mow he had a . of literary and scirntific men a t his home.one evening a week and to this gathering strangers of distinction who were visiting the 1 1 city were also invited. It was at one of these "Wistar parties" (as they were called) that Joseph Priestley was a mest. C a s p r ~\ V ~ s m n Rush was actually succeeded as Professor of Chemistry in the Philadelprofessor of chemistry in the Philaphia ~ ~ ds ~ i I~from , ~~ ~ 1789 l I to 1793. delphia Medical School by James Hutchinson (1752-93) (I), one of his students. His work in chemistry was limited largely t o teaching. Probably he did little or no research work, for his time, other than that in teaching, was consumed in organizing the medical corps under Washington. However, he must have attained proficiency in chemistry because in 1772 the trustees of the Philadelphia Medical School presented him with a gold medal "for his superior knowledge in chemistry." Hutchinson died in 1793 and was succeeded by John Carson, who, however, did not live to perform his duties. We now come to a significant event in the history of chemical education in America-the arrival of Joseph Priestley, June 4, 1794 ( I ) , ( 4 ) , (14). Priestley's presence in America was acceptable to most people, especially to the scientists. Benjamin Franklin, who had been friendly to him in England, made strenuous efforts to have the "honest heretic" locate in Philadelphia instead of in NorthumSuccessor to Benjamin Rush in the Philadelphia Medical Schwl. berland. Rush recommended him for
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the chair of chemistry in the Philadelphia Medical School. It would have been a lucrative position for Priestley, for the salary was three thousand dollars a year. There were about 200 students in the Medical School and 150 of them attended the lectures in chemistry. In a letter to Rush, dated November 3, 1794, Priestley says, "I cannot appear as a candidate, but if the place was offered tome, I would do my best to discharge the duties of it." The minutes of a meeting of the trustees of the University of Pennsylrrania, held November 11, 1794, contain this item: The Board, according to order, proceeded to the election of a professor of chemistry, in the
JossPe I'RIESILEV Declined the proiessarship of chemistry in the Philadelphia Medical School in 17Y4.
1
P n r ~ s r ~ ~H u 'osu s ~nr N o ~ i r r u ~ s r n ~ a N D His laboratory was located in the small wing at the right.
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room of Dr. John Carson, deceased, when the ballots being taken and counted, it appeared that Dr. Joseph Priestley was unanimously elected. But Priestley declined. In a second letter to Rush he says, among other things: On receipt of your obliging letter, I was determined to accept of it, and in my own mind had every arrangement for that purpose. But when I began to consider the difficulty and irksomeness of a journey to Philadelphia [from Northumberland] a t the time of the Lear.. .my heart failed me. . . . Had this proposal been made to me before the removal of my library and apparatus hither, the case would have been different; but this he in^" now done. a t a meat risk and expense, I am, a t all events, fixed [in Northumberlandl for u
It is not difficult to predict what would have happened to the progress A . .
