Chemistry Everyday for Everyone
Experiential, Cooperative, and Study Abroad Education
Chemical Education in Bulgaria
edited by
Geoffrey Davies Northeastern University Boston, MA 02115
Vladimir N. Garkov Department of Chemistry, Mary Baldwin College, Staunton, VA 24401
International aspects of science and chemical education are becoming increasingly prominent in the pages of peerreviewed journals (like this Journal) (1) and in the popular press (2). A special symposium (Global Chemistry: Preparing for a Lifetime in the Global Marketplace) sponsored by the Division of Chemical Education of the American Chemical Society was held at the Spring 1998 National ACS Meeting in Dallas. This event featured 11 oral presenters and attracted a large number of participants. It was reported that the number of American students taking chemistry classes at overseas institutions has been on the rise since 1990. At the same time, a dramatic increase in the number of students and scholars arriving in this country from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union has been observed (3). The ever-growing internationalization of the chemical industry and business seems to require cultural understanding and internationalization of chemical education as well. Bulgaria is a former communist country with a strong chemical industrial base and an educational system known to produce a highly literate populace (4). Chemical education in Bulgaria is typical of educational practices in Eastern and other parts of Europe. The American educational model is quite different from the European approach to teaching chemistry. An understanding of European educational practices and their logical justification should help chemical educators to better analyze study-abroad programs and internships, advise international students, compare student performance, and maybe even improve the way we all teach chemistry. Several specialized publications (5–7) cover the main aspects of the Bulgarian educational system. However, none of them focus specifically on chemistry. Furthermore, this system is in flux. Bulgarian policy makers are trying to restructure it along Western lines while preserving its main traditional components. It will be argued that the Bulgarian system of education in chemistry from middle school through college aims at preparing a scientifically literate citizenry and knowledgeable chemists by imposing a very challenging and rigid curriculum with very few choices. It is speculated that the laissez-faire climate of free intellectual initiative seen only at American universities provides a more appropriate environment for talent encouragement and scientific innovation for overseaseducated undergraduate and graduate students than their home institutions. General Characteristics of the Bulgarian Education System The educational system in Bulgaria shows all the features of a traditional, European-style education: totally centralized, state-run and -supported, coeducational, unitary, comprehensive, standardized, and free for all (including the Ph.D. level). The Ministry of Science and Education mandates curricula
and textbooks for all grades and schools. Students do not have the freedom to elect their subjects. However, they are not bound to their school districts or by the income bracket of their parents. Approximately the same level of knowledge and understanding in the basic disciplines is expected from each and every student. Formal schooling begins at age 7 or 6+ with first grade. After the first 4 years of elementary education, children continue to a presecondary, “middle” school or progymnasium (5th through 8th grade). They graduate with a diploma in “basic education” at the age of 15 and 95% of them continue their studies in high school (7). The “intermediate” education (equivalent to the American high school) consists of a minimum of 3 years at a wide variety of so-called “general education” institutions. (Recent proposals mandate the number of years in high school to be four.) These schools vary in their educational specializations, but all have a core “general education” curriculum consisting of required courses in the basic disciplines: Bulgarian language and literature, foreign language, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, history, geography, and philosophy (5). Fine arts and music are compulsory subjects only in the middle school curriculum. Separate humanities and math “gymnasiums”, ballet and music schools, chemical and electronic “technikums” (vocational colleges), English and French language schools, sports and fine arts schools, etc. exist at the local and national level. Depending on their innate abilities and scholarly achievements, all 13- or 14-year-old students in Bulgaria have to decide where to continue after the 7th or 8th grade. They have to compete (through examination) for entrance to the institution of their choice anywhere in the country or simply enroll (without admission exams) in one of the local general education high schools. The core curriculum is universal and compulsory for all schools. The general education requirements culminate in the 11th grade with mandatory “matura” examinations in a minimum of three basic subjects administered by the schools themselves and by the Ministry of Science and Education. The vast majority of Bulgarian high school graduates continue their studies for one or two more years at specialized schools (colleges) and become technicians, nurses, lab assistants, etc. Compared to the USA, a much smaller percentage (15 to 20%) of the high school graduates in Bulgaria go on to a university-level education (6 ). As of 1998, most universities have adopted new bachelor’s (four years of study) or master’s degrees (at least five years of study). Unlike, the famous German “dual” system, which tracks students into vocational training schools and university-bound gymnasiums, all Bulgarian students are trained with equal rigor and have the opportunity to compete later at the university entrance exams, regardless of the type of school they attend.
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An education in the liberal arts in Bulgaria is achieved at the secondary level. University education is extremely specialized and purely vocational, without any general education requirements. At the age of 18, young people have to decide between law or medicine, Italian philology or history, electrical or chemical engineering, and chemistry with an industrial or pedagogical profile. The curricula differ but are inflexible at every department at every institution. This does not allow for any change of majors midway. The most scholarly students can participate in yet another competition for the few slots in rigid Ph.D. programs that typically last from three to seven years. Pre-College Education in Chemistry Chemistry education starts with a subject called “natureknowing” in the 1st grade and continues through the 5th, which involves the basics of both physical and life sciences. In the 6th grade, students cover a course on topics in physical science, and the biology sequence diverges starting with elementary botany. For the next four to five years, the core curriculum in every school, regardless of its “profile”, requires separate courses in physics, chemistry and biology for every single year. There are at least two hours of chemistry per week in the 7th through 10th grades (5). From one year to another students move from introductory chemistry to general chemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry. A textbook in chemistry for all 9th graders (8) starts with the quantum numbers, molecular orbital theory and hybridization, and leads all the way to the specifics of hydrogen bonding between the bases in the structure of nucleic acids. This text roughly corresponds to a two-semester, introductory organic chemistry course taught at U.S. colleges for science majors. The text cited (8) is a translated edition for special schools where most of the subjects (including chemistry) are taught in English. The biology and math sequences follow similar patterns. From botany, students move on to zoology, then anatomy and physiology, and in high school they cover college-level principles of biology, evolution, biochemistry and genetics. All students must also pass trigonometry (precalculus) in their 10th grade in order to graduate from high school (9). More than 90% of the Bulgarian high school students pass the final examinations and graduate on time; only about 4 to 5% repeat one or more grade levels (5). Understandably, such an academically demanding approach to precollege education requires a rigorous preparation of the teachers. Starting with the 5th grade, all instructors have a university-level training in the subject matter they teach (5, 7). There is no degree in “education” per se (divorced from the subject matter) for any teachers, except for the elementary school level of instruction. Instruction is not student-centered but more traditional and subject-centered. The emphasis is not on how to teach, but rather on what to teach. Science and chemistry curricula are structured along the hierarchical edifice of scientific knowledge in an integrated and comprehensive manner. The assumption is that physics comes before chemistry and that biology can be taught effectively only after basic chemistry. The whole curriculum at any grade level is considered of primary importance in the well-rounded student preparation. Therefore, students who cannot pass one or more of the courses with a satisfactory grade repeat the same grade in its entirety. 1084
The Bulgarian academic calendar is similar to that of other European countries. The school year begins on September 15 and ends between May 24 and June 30, depending on the grade level and the type of institution. Students attend school for only half a day—either from 7:30 to 12:00–1:00 p.m. or from 1:30 to 6:00–7:00 p.m. There is no lunch period because students have lunch at home. Classes meet for 45 minutes with several breaks of 10 minutes and one of 25 minutes between classes. Students of the same grade are divided into groups of 25 to 35 and they always remain together in the same group (referred to as a “class”), which develops a sense of unity and conformity among them. Academics is the number one priority and extracurricular activities, special classes, and social functions are not part of the Bulgarian schooling experience. All examinations are exclusively subject-based and in an essay–problems format without multiple-choice questions. Admission decisions are made solely on merit and performance on these examinations. The “matura” and all entrance examinations are externally administered, thus creating a warmer classroom atmosphere where teacher and students are on the same side and where the subject matter is the common “enemy”. University-Level Studies The same types of rigid instructional methods and curricula also persist in the Bulgarian universities. The requirements for a recently introduced bachelor’s degree in chemistry at the University of Sofia (based on a 15-week semester) are as follows: a core of 106 semester hours (labs counted as 1 hour each), 41 semester hours of electives, and 445 contact hours (11 weeks) of research, which ends with a thesis defense. The core subjects taught are like the ones at an American school. The number of total contact hours for lecture/lab is as follows: physics (60/120), mathematics (60/90), general inorganic (180/250), analytical (90/210), organic (180/250), physical chemistry (150/150), polymers (45/45), instrumental analysis (90/120), biochemistry (45/45), quantum chemistry (30/30), chemical technology (60/90), computer science (75), and English (60). Such a heavy load is possible because of the absence of university-wide general education requirements. In addition, Bulgarian students typically carry about 25–30 contact hours per week, and they are expected not to have outside jobs. Final examinations are administered orally on an individual basis and consist of a practical (laboratory) and theoretical part. Those exams count for 100% of the course grade and they normally cover a year or two (2 to 4 semesters) of classes in a specific discipline. This reflects the overall integrated approach to education. The freedom to study on your own does not include any curricular choices. Students are even confined to one and the same study “group” of 10 to 15 fellow students during their 4 or 5 years of study, which creates mutual intellectual stimulation and some camaraderie among students. Bulgarian Ph.D. programs have also “a state-planned character” (6 ). Ph.D. students rarely take any courses, are never employed as teaching assistants, and devote their time almost entirely to research. The “pipeline” system is in place even at this level of education. The award of a Ph.D. degree occurs in an open-to-the-general-public forum based on the candidate’s oral presentation (30 minutes), the reports of three
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Chemistry Everyday for Everyone
external reviewers, and the final vote (by secret ballot) of approximately 20 members of the respective interdisciplinary council of scientists in the appropriate field (biochemistry or analytical chemistry or organic chemistry, etc.). Postdoctoral studies are uncommon. Faculty appointments are made according to the results of a competition among all candidates during a two-day battery of written and oral subject-matter-based examinations. Appointment as an assistant professor means award of tenure with little real reviewing of the quality of later work. Promotions to associate professorships are not automatic after a certain number of years. In fact it is very difficult to get promoted, as it depends on the availability of slots and not on the candidate’s merits. These promotions are advertised nationally and both in-house and outside candidates are considered, depending mainly on their publication record. Student evaluations of teaching are virtually nonexistent. Discussion What is the logical justification for the rigid, subjectbased education in the sciences and chemistry in particular? This is the predominant form of training in chemistry throughout the European continent and especially in its eastern part. The information-based, academically demanding approach to precollege education with an early introduction of difficult, fundamental concepts is in line with a large body of research data showing that the brain gets “wired” to do art and science under proper, challenging environmental stimuli at a very early age (10, 11). It is much easier for younger students to comprehend and retain information. In fact, it may be actually too late to introduce college-age students to the basics. Bulgarian high school students, regardless of their socioeconomic background, are challenged and pushed in a quite totalitarian manner to perform to the highest of their abilities, thereby ensuring a more uniform level of knowledge of chemistry. The generally higher levels of scientific literacy found in such culturally different regions of the world as Eastern Europe and East Asia (2, 4) may be linked to the presence in both regions of more centralized and academically rigid educational systems. Comparative research studies in the U.S. (12) also show that a more structured, “pushy” climate that deprives students of freedom to choose leads to higher mathematics achievement than a communitarian, laissez-faire approach to teaching. Perhaps democracy is not good for chemical and science education. At the same time, nurturing of natural talents towards innovation requires a very delicate balance between academically rigorous structure and intellectual freedom. Bulgarian students’ creativity may be stifled as they follow the rigid path of the pipeline-style approach to (chemical) education through university. Perhaps, after receiving a solid foundation in the sciences at the secondary level of instruction, they could benefit more from exploring all possible fields of interest in the atmosphere of curricular choices, free thinking, entrepreneurial spirit, and individual responsibility seen only in the USA. Data support this assertion. Relative to the size of its population, Eastern Europe is the number one supplier of foreignborn scientists and engineers in the U.S. work force (3). De-
spite admissions limits and immigration barriers, the percentage of foreign-born graduate students and researchers in U.S. chemistry and other science fields has nearly doubled since 1986. Clearly, these students are not displacing their American counterparts, but rather filling a void from a shortage of domestic applicants of high quality (13). According to the National Science Foundation, 42% of all doctoral degrees in chemistry and 58% of those in chemical engineering conferred in the U.S. in 1995 were earned by non-U.S. citizens, up from 27% and 52%, respectively, a decade earlier. The vast majority of them choose to stay in this country because of much better economic and research prospects (3). Furthermore, foreign-born and educated Americans have received a disproportionately high number of the Nobel prizes awarded to U.S. citizens. Bulgaria and all the countries of Eastern Europe are in the process of reforming their educational systems along Western lines (14) by introducing more flexibility, a lowering of the requirements, more electives and talent encouragement. However, a short period of a decentralized approach to education led to a fall in the quality of educational instruction and its outcomes and Bulgaria went back to the unified state curriculum for all secondary schools (14). Universities received complete autonomy, including control of academic curricula. Some of them now charge tuition fees. The bachelor’s degree is being established in most schools, some multiple-choice questions appeared on exams, and increasing numbers of Bulgarian students are studying in foreign exchange programs. The world is shrinking. International business and educational opportunities are constantly growing, especially for chemists (from any country) who show fluency in the subject matter as well as knowledge and understanding of foreign cultures and their diverse educational systems. Literature Cited 1. Nolan, M. J. J. Chem. Educ. 1995, 72, 45–47. 2. World Education League. The Economist 1997, March 29, 21–23. 3. National Science Board. Science & Engineering Indicators–1993; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1993. 4. Peak, L. Pursuing Excellence NCES 97-198; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1996. 5. Damianova-Ivanova, A. Secondary Education in Bulgaria; Council of Europe Press: Strasbourg Cedex, France; 1995. 6. Topencharov, V. Higher Education in Bulgaria; CEPES (Centre Europeen pour l’Enseignement Superieur) UNESCO: Bucharest, 1983. 7. Stefanov, M. J. New Technologies, Labour Organization, Qualification, Structures and Vocational Training in Bulgaria; CEDEFOP (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training): Berlin, 1990. 8. Binev, I. Chemistry for the 9th Class of the English Language Schools; Narodna Prosveta State Publishing House: Sofia, Bulgaria, 1990. 9. Zaprianov, Z. Algebra 10 Klas na SOU; Prosveta: Sofia, 1993. 10. Cromer, A. Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science; Oxford University Press: New York, 1993. 11. Hamer, D. Living with Our Genes; Doubleday: New York, 1998. 12. Phillips, M. Am. Educ. Res. J. 1997, 34, 633–662. 13. Brennan. M. B. Chem. Eng. News 1997, 75(March 17), 43–52. 14. Savova, J. Eur. J. Educ. 1996, 31, 85–96.
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