1. B. POLYA University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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PROBLEM of small universities is closely bound up with controversies between protagonists of large and small organizations of national and international scale. Small universities, as small nations, have disadvantages arising out of limitations of human and economic resources, but they have often the advantages of more intense human contacts, greater reality of democracy, and perhaps more enthusiasm than what is found within larger national and academic bodies. The problem of justification of the existence and scope of small universities is closely bound up with problems of regional planning, an important feature of modern geopolitical ideas. For this reason alone a somewhat detailed survey of one of the smallest universities in the Englishspeaking world may be justified. Tasmania is a little smaller than Maine, with a population of the same order as that of Delaware or Wyoming. Agricultural and industrial activities are well balanced. The main industries are mining, zinc refining, agricultural and paper manufactures. Cheap electric power continues to attract other industries. New industries and increased general immigration to Australia have resulted in a sharp upward trend of the population figures during the last few years. Tasmania became a British settlement in 1803. In 1856 responsible government was established and in 1901 Tasmania became one of the constituent states of the Australian Federation. Tasmania has always played a role far above its numerical importance in Australia and there were quite a few early suggestions and attempts to establish an academy. These moves were initiated by a small, educated minority, but with the establishment of universities in the larger mainland states the idea of a Tasmanian university became popular all over the state. The University of Tasmania was established in 1889, but there were no academic activities until 1891. The first B. A. and B. S. degrees were conferred in 1894 and 1897, respectively. From 1914 onward yearly graduations permanently exceeded 10, to rise to about 70 in our days. Total enrollments rose from 50 to 300 between 1900 and 1935. From then on enrollments grew rapidly to 750 due to a considerable expansion of science and engineering departments which began in 1935. Since this trend is likely to continue, and present quarters are getting less and less adequate, it has been decided to erect a new university. The departments of physics, botany, zoology, and geology have been established in temporary buildings on the new site. It is hoped that the new and permanent buildings for the chemistry and engineering departments, the latter offering temporary accommodation to mathematics,
will be ready in 3 to 4 years. In the meantime much inconvenience is caused to students and staff by the dispersion of the University sites. The chemistry department, quite small by international standards, is housed in two buildings a few hundred yards away. The older laboratories and officesoccupy a corner of the Hobart Technical College. This part of the department contains the administrative offices,library, main stores, lecture rooms, and second- and third-year laboratories. The building is antiquated and in had repair. A smaller new building, opened in 1946, contains an uptodate first-year laboratory, and a set of laboratories for staff and research students, including a small but very well-equipped spectrographic laboratory fitted for absorption, emission, phot,ometric, and fluorimetric work. Affiliation with the universities of Oxford and Cambridge was necessary during the first period of the University's history. Letters Patent, granted in 1915, established the equivalence of Tasmanian degrees with other British degrees for professional purposes. The surprisingly large number of good and outstanding. scientists and scholars turned out by the University of Tasmania completely justified formal recognition as a full university. Collaboration with Technical colleges was unavoidable from the beginning owing to the smallness of the population and financial resources. After the first World War a body known as the Engineering Board of Management was set up to maintain staff and laboratories of the chemistry and engineering departments. The staff of these departments serves both the University and the senior schools of the Hobart Technic$ College. The latter institution was meant as a technical university for night students employed by industrial firms. Enrollments are small and some advanced classes are given every 2 to 3 years only. Owing to staff difficulties some Technical College students are forced to attend daytime lectures at the University. Senior staff is either completely free from night instruction or is committed to a few night time lectures only. These factors and an antiquated syllabus of the Technical College are sources of inefficient teaching and hardship to students. A reformed syllabus according to the suggestions of the Australian Chemical Institute is likely to he put in effect in the near future, and a complete separation of University and Technical College will become unavoidable when the science departments move to their new site. One of the main advantages of the Engineering Board of Management is the provision of additional funds. The university is very poorly endowed from private
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sources and practically all expenditures must be met from public funds. The first budgets of the University were less than $5000. After the first World War Univemity expenditure rose to about &20,000. A change of government in 1934 has benefited all Tasmanian schools and the last audited report of 1947 shows an expenditure of over $90,000 including over $20,000 through the Engineering Board of Management. As a rough approximation multiplication of these figures by seven would give dollar values permitting comparison with the finances of American universities. Apart from the unusual system of dual control of some departments the University is organized on the usual British lines. The Chancellor is the nominal and the Vice-Chancellor the actual head of the University. Until now the Vice-Chancellor was one of the professors, hut it has been decided to appoint a permanent ViceChancellor in the near future. The chief executive hody is the Council which consists of ex-officio members and others elected by Parliament, staff, and Senate. The latter hody consists of past graduates and has few functions beyond sending representatives to the Council. The Professorial Board consists of professors and acting-professors. The faculties of arts, science, engineering, law, and commerce consist of full-time and part-time teachers in addition to co-opted members to represent professions, employers, and nonacademic institutions of education and research. There is no medical faculty. Students of medicine, dental, and veterinary science may complete their first year in Tasmania with Physics, botany, zoology, chemistry, and medical organic chemistry. Pharmaceutical chemists have no academic status in Tasmania. Their education is made up of courses organized by the Pharmacy Board a t the Technical College. They attend the organic chemistry lectures for medicals students. Tasmanian medical, dental, and veterinary students proceed to the universities of Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide to complete their studies. Large enrollments and limited facilities a t these universities have severely restricted the entry of Tasmanians during the postwar years. On the other hand, an investigating committee has reported that, in absence of private donations, it would he an unsonndeconomic policy to establish a medical faculty before the state had reached a population mark of 500.000. The original staff consisted of four professors (mathematics, mining, English, and law) and four lecturers (chemistry, geology, and philological suhjects). A chair for biology was created in 1912 but it fell in aheyance in 1931. Other scientific chairs were established in this order: physics 1927, chemistry 1941, zoology 1943, geology 1947, and botany 1948. The teaching staff consists of 15 professors, 38 full-time lecturem, and 44 others including part-time lecturers, demonstrators, and technical assistants other than research students. With the exception of professorial salaries, Tasmanian academic salaries now compare quite favorably with those a t other universities. The following salaries are given not on the basis of exchange figures but living costs as computed from a recent detailed sunrev of
academic living costs in America and Australia.' Demonstrators, corresponding to instructors or tutors in the United States, are paidthe equivalent of $2500-2900. Lecturers, second grade, (assistant professors) receive $30004000. Lecturers, fist grade, have the scope of American associate professors and earn $4000-5000: they correspond to the lower paid senior lecturers at large Australian universities. Tasmanian senior lecturers are equivalent to readers and associate professors a t other Australian universities with salaries equivalent to $6000. Professorial salaries are of the order of $7500, or about 20Y0 lower than those a t larger Australian universities. These salaries are due for an over-all increase. They contain a varying amount governed by the fluctuating living costs. Research qualifications were not of supreme importance in some earlier appointments. Nevertheles~, 30 per cent of the staff have distinguished research records. In some branches of mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology Tasmanian scientists lead t,heir colleagues in other parts of Australia. The normal science course leads to a B.S. degree in three years. Nine "units" of examination are required for this degree. Present regulations prescribe not less than four and not more thaufive first-yearand twothirdyear suhjects. Chemistry I and Physics I are compulsory for all science students. One of the first-year subjects may be taken in languages, history, education or logic and psychology. Five."units" of chemistry are being taught hut students are not permitted to take more than four. This is meant to prevent overspecialization, although students of physicomathematical sciences are permitted to take eight and students of biology six units in their specialized field. This measure is not in conformity with the wishes of students and industrialists and it may be remedied in the near future. Approved graduates may be permitted to proceed to IIonors during a fourth year including advanced specialized study and research work. First and second class Honors qualify for a Master's.course which is a pure research degree of two years' duration. Further research work may lead to the degrees of Ph.D. and D.Sc. The practice of taking Honors and M.S. concurrently was abolished a few years ago. Thesesfor M.S., Ph.D., and D.Sc. degrees are submitted to distinguished examiners outside the university. There might be an element of unjustified inferiority complex in this arrange- . ment but on the whole it safeguards the best interests of higher graduates. Courses in applied science are of four years' duration and carry Honors status. Unlike the courses for the B.S. degree the two applied courses (industrial chemistry and applied electricity) do not contain optional units although some alternative units mav be added
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On an exchange basis, the salaries in Australian universities are ahont one-half the corresponding salaries in American institutions. However, the difference in living costs is such that an Australian lecturer, on his annual salary of £750 (with an exchange value of $22001, could not maintain his Australian standard of living in America on less than $5000. Since this was written the prir* level ha- increased slightly
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
with the growth of these recently established courses. The course in industrial chemistry for the degree of B.S. (Applied) is virtually a course in chemical engineering: mathematics, physics, mechanical and electrical engineering, workshop practice, and business practice for engineers make up more than half of the course. Twenty weeks of 40 hours must be spent in approved industrial work and a certificate of proficiency in first aid is also required. Candidates both for B.S., Honors, and B.S. (Applied) must have reading knowledge of two foreign languages. High-school certificates are accepted for this purpose, but few students enter the University with some knowledge of any foreign language other than French. A course in scientific German is given a t the University. There is staff available to give courses in Russian and Spanish, but there is no demand for such instruction at present. The lectures in chemistry are given by one professor, three first grade lecturers and one second grade lecturer. Senior demonstrators are in charge of tutorial sessions and practical work for undergraduates under the direction of senior staff. Increase of staff was responsible for a number of changes in the chemistry syllabus. The present arrangement may be considered as permanent for some time to come. The first-year work in chemistry includes one weekly lecture of a 3-term 27- or 28week academic year in each of the following subjects: inorganic chemistry, theoretical chemistry, and organic chemistry. This last course is supplemented by extra lectures and demonstrations to medical and pharmaceutical students. The practical work is done in two periods of two hours each per week. The work is mainly analytical. About six periods are devoted to elementary tests on organic compounds and basic organic manipulations. The organic course stresses the main fundamental ideas of organic chemistry, such as history, methods of structural proof, isomerism, classification, and nomenclature, with a brief survey of outstanding functional groups and applications. In the second year, three weekly le,cture hours are shared equally between physical and organic chemistry. The first covers the scope of Fmdlay's "Introduction to Physical Chemistry" and the latter the aliphatic and aromatic portions of Whitmore's "Organic Chemistry." Much of the theoretical work is covered in the form of fortnightly exercises followed by tutorial discussions. These exercises are designed to train the students in library work. Notes are issued for physical chemistry. Notes on organic chemistry are limited to lists of names, terms, processes, etc., treated in the lectures, followed by a list of suggested reading. The second-year laboratory course is a little over 160 hours in length. This time is shared equally between analytical and organic work. This system tends to overload students and is not sufficient to impart elementav technical skill. From 1950 onward students will he permitted to take two chemical subjects a t the second-year. level. One course will be General Chemistry 11,includmg inorganic and physical chemistry, with 160 hours of analytical and physical laboratory work. The other course will be
Organic Chemistry I1 which will survey the whole field of elementary organic chemistry with a biochemical bias and which will include a series of 12 to 15 lectures on applied organic chemistry. The laboratory work of the new Organic Chemistry I1 course will cover the scope of Wertheim's "Organic Chemistry Laboratory Guide." Third-year work in chemistry is divided into optional units with one lecture hour and four practical hours to each unit. The options available a t present are the following: inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, industrial chemistry, thermodynamics, and electrochemistry, theoretical organic Chemistry, chemistry of naturally occurring compounds, and biochemistry. Three--in some cases four-of these units constitute a course in Chemistry 111. Honors students may select third-year options and additional options like advanced inorganic chemistry, chemical physics, and a course consisting of advanced topics in organic and biochemistry. Altogether six of these options must be taken by Honors students during their third- and fourth-year studies. The options must include inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, and theoretical organic chemistry and the remaining options in the student's specialized field. This means that an Honors course must be planned a t the beginning of the third year. Practical work during the Honors year consists of research alone. A short thesis must be submitted on the year's work. Lack of staff and means prevented extensive research work before 1938. During the war research activities concentrated on applied problems, particularly wood hydrolysis. Increased staff and considerable public and private support made fundamental research possible after the war. The major fields investigated by staff and research students a t the chemistry department of the University of Tasmania are the following: survey of trace elements in Tasmanian rocks; kinetics of the oxidation of sugars; organic chemistry of cobalt; organic, biochemical, and physical investigation of substituted amides; synthesis of triazoles; investigation of synthetic arsenicals and antimonials; and fractionation of eucalyptus oils. Publication in these fields have just begun and are expected to rise steadily after an initial period of organizing and publishing delays. Supplies of chemicals and equipment are good, although delays occur in the delivery of orders from overseas. Dollar shortage is another source of inconvenience. The departmetal library is well stocked with modern textbooks and handbooks. All the major American and British journals are being received in addition to the Receuzl and the Heluetica Chimica Acta. Russian journals are abstracted in Melbourne and original papers or translations are available. There is a grave shortage of journals from before 1920, but funds are available to buy sets of important journals. In the meantime the central library of the University has organized a service of borrowing books and journals and obtaining microfilms and prints from other libraries. Even so, considerable delay in research work is caused by the lack of free access to important literature. Another difficulty is the lack of microanalytical services.
FEBRUARY, 1949
A complete set of microchemical equipment and chemicals cannot be used for lack of staff and lack of adequate quarters. Other Australia institutes have microanalytical services but Tasmanian requirements often receive second and still lower priority. Seminars were established by the chemistry department a few years ago. In addition to staff and advanced students of the department, workers from other departments and school teachers also attend. Further valuable lectures are offered by the Tasmanian branch of the Australian Chemical Institute in which members of the University staff have important functions. The greatest disadvantage of the University is a lack of adequate facilities for social intercourse. There is no Union building for students. The staff room is primitive and is not within the reach of most members of the science staff. There are no sports grounds, and academic sports are possible only through the courtesy of other Tasmanian sporting bodies. The smallness of Hobart counteracts to a certain extent the lack of social contact within the University, but the increase of staff and departments makes better facilities and increasingly urgent matter which is delayed by building difficulties for the time being. A certain lack of interest
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among students in University matters is a natural consequence of these conditions. The extensive cooperation of teachers and their exceptionally pleasant social relations are due to the high standards governing human contacts in Tasmania and not to any organized effort. A comparison of educational standards and achievements readily shows that under favorable conditions small universities like the University of Tasmania are able to do excellent work short of research work requiring large teams and many specialized services. With the growth of the state such facilities may yet be available. In the meantime a healthy, activenucleus exists which can safely expand to almost any size without prejudicing worth-while traditions and the proper balance of courses. The same thing cannot be said about some much larger universities. In this sense the University of Tasmania offers a good argument in favor of smaller universities. Small classes (about 100 firstyear, 30 second-year, 15 third-year, and 6 postgraduate students in the chemistry department) offer pedagogical opportunities closely approximating the tutorial systems of Oxford and Cambridge while most difficulties of research work could be overcome by affiliation with almost any of the large Australian research institutes.
