international chemical education, 4
Chemical Education in the New South Africa General Chemistry, the "Lost" Generation, and Implications for Curriculum Reform in the United States Gerhard F. swiegersl and Nico Rheeder Vista University, Private Bag X613, Port Elizabeth, 6000, South Africa Edward J. Neth U-60, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269
Introductory, or general chemistry as it is taught in the United states hascome under renewed attack recently as being - inadequate to the needs of chemical education a t col1ese ---- level - - - - (li. -. Various commentators have, for example, labelled it too theoretical (Z),repetitive and boring (31, a "cramcourse" (41, a series of obsolete and useless concepts (5) and partially blamed it for freshmen students' loss of interest in chemistry (6).There have been numerous calls for reform (1,2, 7) resulting, most recently, in the formation of an ACS task m - u p- (8)to study and discuss problems with the general chemistry cumklum. Most of the criticism levelled at general chemistry has, predictably, come from U. S. chemical educators, because the general chemistry curriculum and methodology are not widely used internationally. We have, however, recently initiated a study (9, 10) on the use of general chemistry in South Africa with some findings that may be relevant to the whole debate in the United States. Discussion The political upheaval in South Africa over the last decade has led to large-scale disruption of education in the country (11).This, added to the already overburdened schooling system, has left an entire generation poorly cducated, someof'them so politicized that they are regarded as ineducable and nntrainable (121 The term "lost generation" is popularly uscd to refer to those youngsters. Turnine these students into ~roductiveand useful citizens constytutes the major challenge in future South African education. The teaching of chemistry in South Africa has traditionallv been alone the lines of an English, or more correctly, build up a student's ~ c o t t i s hsyst& that attempts knowledge of chemistry systematically from high school through college to graduate studies. The teaching of chemi s t has ~ therefore been approached from a somewhat theoreiical angle, insofar as thcories are expounded on the assum~tionthat students were made aware of them (and the assokated facts) at a n earlier stage of their education. Thus, the introductory course in college traditionally starts with the premise of a thorough grounding in chemistry (and the neccessary academic skills) on the part of entering students. However, a brief summary of 'previous" work often is also presented. While such a system is, indeed, a very effective mechanism of building up, in each
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'Author to whom correspondence must be addressed. Present address: Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, G. P. 0.Box 4, Canberra, ACT, Australia 2601.
student, a substantial knowledge of chemistry, it is essential that students a t each level within the system have a cnmoetent knowledee of the material dealt with a t earlier stages of their eduLation to fully understand what they will be taueht at that ~ o i n tAs . far as introductory chemistry in SOU& Africa iseoncerned, this may have been true in the oast. when South African h i ~ school h education was "exclusivist", but it is not true today and will be even less so in the future. Instead, the lack of prior knowledge, the poor intellectualilanguage skills, and the increasing diversitv in the chemical backmounds of entering students has led to something of a crisis in tertiary che&ical education in the country with numerous students, especially those from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds, being unable to cope academically (13). In a n attempt to make up some of &ese deficiencies a series of "academic support programs" andlor "bridging courses"have been established a t the introductory level in various tertiary educational institutions around the country (13, 14). For financial reasons these courses are themselves somewhat exclusivist, however, and they can, therefore, not be applied on a large scale. Instead a more appropriate introductory chemistry course wadis required. The response of a number of institutions to this situation has been to move. over time. to a more fundamental introductory course that relies less on knowledge and skills supposedly learned earlier (15).Indeed, today curricula involving not only the learning of traditional chemical principles, but also the improvement of intellectual and language skills are being developed and implemented by a t least one institution (16).American chemistry texts and courses broadly based on them, are now used by various institutions for introductory chemistry, although a more theoretical and rote-study approach to the subject is still common. We recently offered a standard, one-semester Arnericanstvle . "eeneral chemistry" course to an incoming class, on an experimental basis, -in an attempt to see whether this would lead to an improvement in the results and retention offirst-year chemistry students. The college chosen for this studv was Vista university, a small, recently established instiktion. One of the a& of the university is to increase the accessibility of tertiary education to educationally underprivileged students. For this reason most of the students at the university are from disadvantaged communities and could, therefore, be considered part of the "lost generation". At the end of the semester a series of comparative tests, originally completed by an introductory chemistry class at a large U. S. state university, were written by
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Table 1. Comparative Scores: All Questions
U. S. University
Vista University
54.7 %(53=) 54.5% ( a a ) 54.5% (Ua)
62.4% (Ma) 62.4% (44a)
'numbers in brackets indicate the total number of questions over which a comparison was mads. ba well-regarded university with a highly selective admissions procedure.
a representative group of students from both Vista university and various other institutions in the country. These tests suggested that the general chemistry course had been successful in closing the educational "gap" in chemistry between the "advantaged" and "disadvantaged" sectors of our people (9). By comparison, the gap (as measured by the relative failure rates) usually increases under the traditional system (13, 17). One of the tests involved a comparison of the progress of the Vista university students with the students in the introductory chemistry class at the U. S. state university for which the tests had been written in the first place.2 This particular test contained 60 multiple-choice questions wvering material dealt with in the first semester of introductory chemistry, such as thermochemistry, gases, and the electronic structure of atoms. AB the average score of the U. S. students was known for each question, we were able to compare, on a question-by-question basis, the level of knowledge of the various groups involved. The South African students did not complete all the questions, because some questions involved areas that had been presented only briefly in class or not at all. To our surprise the Vista university group had scores (Table 1) that were similar to those obtained by the U. S. students. When the answers were analyzed on a question-by-questionbasis (Table 21, it was clear that the Vista university and U. S. groups had similar scores on most of the individual questions and subdivisions as well. Both ofthese groups had scores that were somewhat lower than those of students from a highly regarded South African university that admitted only students with a good background knowledge to their introductow chemistr, course. The sampli groups involved were too small for the outcome of these tests to be considered conclusive, hut the results suggest that both the United States and the Vista university students ended the semester with approximately the same level of knowledge. Because the courses resented and methodoloev used were almost identical, ;his implies that the two &ups started the semester with school^ knowledec. It is oossible. as the same level ofthieh . Doyle (3) asserts, that the general c h k s t r y ' course'repeats much of the U. S. high school curriculum, but this is also true in respect of the South African high school chemistry curriculum. It would appear, therefore, that many U. S. freshmen chemistry students are, at least to some extent, in the same position as South African students of the "lost generation". If this is so, then the real problem with introductory chemistry in the U. S. may not be the cumculum but the standard of U. S. high school chemical education. The curriculum may be inadequate purely insofar as it cannot, in one year, make up for the incomplete high schooling of some entering students as well as meet the demands of faculty members who wish it to build a solid foundation for later courses. If this is so, it is a serious and a binding constraint to effective curricular reform. So pow-
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2Theseresults have not been discussed in previous studies. 728
Journal of Chemical Education
U. S. University
S. A. universityb
53,1% (53=) 53.5% (449
Table 2. Comparative Scores: Selected Categories
Vista University
S.A. University
~alculations~: 60.9% (138)
57.2% (138)
63.2% (13=)
Theory applicationsC: Theory - roted:
51.8% (20a)
50.7% (208)
59.9% (20a)
56.1% (ga)
54.3% (ga)
59.8% (9')
%umbers in brackets indicate the total number of questions over which a comparison was made. 'questions involving a mathematical calculation of any type. $uestions which test an understanding of a theory or theories by using an application of the theory (e.g., drawing of Lewis structures, predicting diamag.netism ... . ... at,? . ...\,. dquestions that test rote knowledge of theory (e.g., recogniringlexplaining the first law of thermodvnamics.. Bovles' law etc.1. 'a well-regarded unibersitywith a highly seleciive admissions procedure
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erful a constraint in fact that, as has recently been pointed out, "improving" one part of the curriculum may well lead to "degradation" in another (18). Therefore, the course should be reformed either as a bridge building exercise between high school and wllege, in which case it may not be an ideal foundation course, or students accepted into the course must arrive a t college with all the ueccessary knowledge so that the course can he reformed as a strong foundation on which to build more advanced undergraduate courses. We would, on the basis of this evidence, suggest that the key to "improving" introductory chemistry in the United States may, at this stage, lie less in curricula reform of the general chemistry course and more in a general impmvement of the standard of U. S. high school chemistry. Increasing the knowledge of freshmen students entering introductory chemistry courses, even to a small extent, will reduce the extraordinarily diverse demands made on the general chemistry course and thereby offer more flexibility. Having said that, however, there can be little doubt that general chemistry, in its present form, is highly suitable for students with little background in chemistry, or for a class containing students with a wide variety of hackground knowledge. It is certainly more appropriate to the South African situation than a traditional course. From our discussions with the students it seems that the primary reason they achieved improved results is the fact that, under the American system, chemistry is taught as an applied skill rather than as a philosophically abstract subject; something seen to be almost the opposite of the approach used in their high schools. A most undesirable consequence of the traditional system of chemical education in South Africa has been the development of a "rote study" mentality among many educationally disadvantaged students. General chemistry, by contrast, has no place for rote study of this type and instead students are, more often, forced to get down to actually understanding and implementing the material, a refreshingly uplifting and meaningful experiencefor many of them. Because all the students spoke English only as a second language, another factor mentioned by many students was the reduced language requirement; multiple- choice questions and calculations largely replaced any questions requiring explanatory answers in English. This remains contentious (19).
Conclusion It may be of interest to readers to be given a brief descnorlon of the overall curriculum of a t ~ i c a chemistw l majbr in South Africa and how i t is beingaffected by thk ongoing process of change within tertiary education in the country. On entering a university, a student wishing to complete a bachelor of science degree (BSc) enters the Faculty of Science. A successful chemistry major would, traditionally, complete their BSc degree in three years. During their fust year the student would simultaneously conclude four (or, in some institutions, five) scientific courses (chemistry and thredfour others) at the "first-year" level. The cxtia coursesgenerally were clectives ofany scientific subject offered by the faculty. such as physics, mathematics, computer science, geography etc. In them second-year they would com~letethree "second-vear"level scientific courses (chemistryand two of the three electives chosen in the first year) and in their third year they would complete two "third-year" level scientific courses of which one, or both, may be chemistry. Apre-requisite for registration in a "second-year" level course is completion ofthe "first-year" level course in the same subject, while entrance to a "third-year" level course is restricted to students having sucessfully completed the "firstyear" and "second-yea? level courses in that subject. Each of the above courses would be of oneyear duration regardless of whether they were "first-", "second-", or "third-" year level. Each successive one-year course, therefore, builds upon the last. The BSc may be followed by a further year during which a student would study only graduate level chemistry courses thereby obtaining a BSc (Honors) degree. Following that they would be free to enter a research Masters or Doctoral program in which no further coursework would be required. The fact is, however, that only around 20% of students nationwide are completing their BSc in the "standard" three years (13).This appears to be due, in no small measure, to low, declining or inappropriate academic standards and poor intellectuaLlanguage skills development a t high schools. There is, therefore, increasing discussion around the possibility of a mainstream, decelerated fouryear B Sc degree that would contain some elements of language proficiency and academic skills development (20). Indeed, such curricula already are offered at a number of universities (16, 21). although they usuallv are reserved foreducationally disadvantaged &dents. 1" reepect of the inclusion of non-scientific subject material in the curriculum and the possibility of itskxtension to four years, the South African BSc degree is slowly evolving to resemble the American model although it is unlikely ever to offer a full year of liberal arts as is done in many U.S. universities nor to drop the "first-", "second-", "third-year" sequential study program used.
Atest consistingof three sets of 20 multiple-choice questions each (60 questions overall) was wmvleted bv a sample group of 10 students from Vista univrrbity anda highly regarded, traditional university in South Africa. The average results were compared, bn a question-by-question basis, to those of the 1989, general chemistry class at a large U. S. state university (sample size: 44 students). The students involved were selected to write the test based entirely on the fact that they had consistently scared "average" throughout the first-semester course. To nor- grades . malize the como&sons. the results ~~~-~~ were treated - - as follows; The m e d h score was taken for each group and averaged for all students within 10% of that score. I n any one group the results of, a t worst, three students out of 10 were ignored as a result. These averages are reported in Tables 1 and 2. The South African students who participated wrote the test as part of a battery of tests on a day immediately after completion of their final chemistry exam of the semester. These students were monetarily reimbursed for their time according to standard university rates. ~
Acknowledgment The authors wish to thank Hans Rohwer for his assistance and the Student Development Trust for their financial support. Literature Cited 1. CPTNeudetl~r1980,8.1. 2. Reporl on NSF Undegmdvate Cumeulum Douelopmed Workshop on Maforwls., National Sdeme Foundation: WmhingtM, DC, 1990. 3. Doyle. M. Gpneml ChPmisfrySympos1um;ACS Meetin~.AUanta.1991. 4. Entryhue1 Undrrgmduofo Course in Sclonce, Mdhemtics, ond Engineriw:An h u & m n f in Humon Remum; Sigma-Xi:Rose& mangle P a 4 NC, 1990. 5. Hawk- 5. J. J.Cbm. Educ. 1882,69. 178. 6. Gileapie R. J.: Humphreya D. A. J. Chem. Edue I N , 67, 348. 7. The L i b e d M afSelolo-AgPndo forAcfii"; AmericanAesociatianfofoth~Advancement of Science:WashingLon, DC,1990, 7 b m w o w : The Repor1 of the Tas*F o m k Study of Clumlml Education in the UnitodSfatrs; American Chemical Sofor L ciety; Washington, DC,1984. 8. Legowaki,J.J.;etal.J ChemEdm. 1884.69, 174. 9. S . A k J . Chem.; fo be submitted for publication.
1990.1992. 14. Agar, D.; Hofmeyr. J.; Moulder, J. Bridgmg Education in the 1990'8; E d ~ r c e , C r a * h a u lJohanneabulg), 1991. 15. Brad1ey.J. D.: Gerrsns. G. C.S.Afr J. Sci I9al, ?7,495. 16. Bradley,3. D.; Brsnd, M.;Brink, G. S.#r J Educ 1986.5, 47: Bradley, J. D.: Stanton, M.S & J. ScL 198682.537. 17. Sander,C. L. S. Afr J. Edue lM8.8, 359. U.Anonymaus;J Ckm. Edue 1942.69.403.
19. Pretorius, D. J. S.M J. Edue. 18844.55. 20. Hunter,P.; S . A k J. H@hsrEdue lrial, 6.5.
21. Universiry of South Africa ["English for Science Studentr'l, University of the Witwatersrand [Four-yearCum%~lum;Team Teaching Language and Scieneel, and otherthe.
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