I 060
T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Satisfactory comparisons of the efficiencies of different phosphates in the field cannot be made if there is only a slight deficiency of phosphoric acid, particularly if unusually large amounts of phosphates are applied. I n all such comparative work the supply of the most efficient phosphate should fall a little short of, or certainly not exceed, the actual requirements of the particular crop. In testing the efficiency of nitrogenous fertilizers the same principle holds true, and in both cases one should so plan the experiments that positive information is furnished as t o the adequacy of the other plant foods employed, in order that it may be certain that the only “limiting element” is the one under consideration. I n testing the rate of nitrification of different ammoniates one must use only what would be coasidered rational proportions of soil and material and not several times the amount that would be used in agricultural practice, for if larger amounts are used in conjunction with an alkaline soil the better and more available the ammoniate, from an agricultural standpoint, the greater the amount of ammonia that would be formed from it in a given time. This ammonia added to the existing alkalinity is likely to give rise t o a total degree of alkalinity which would seriously interfere with or inhibit nitrification, and thus observations based upon the rate of nitrification might lead to conclusions as to relative availability which are diametrically opposed t o the truth. In making studies of the chemical reactions of calcium carbonate and of magnesium carboxate on soils it is important that the experiments be conducted with natural limestone and magnesian limestone because of the relatively high solubility in carbonated water of artificial magnesium carbonate and the low solubility of magnesium carbonate in magnesian or dolomitic limestone. These are merely illustrative of types of work from which false and misleading conclusions have been or may be drawn at any time if the essentials of a true experiment are not observed. At the present time the outlook for agricultural chemistry in the United States is not particularly encouraging, for the reason that we are placing great emphasis upon other lines of endeavor which are drawing some of the best and most promising young men away from postgraduate study. I refer t o the passage of the Smith-Leaver Act and the large sums of money made available for employing county agricultural agents. Many of these men who have become county agents within two or three years after graduating fromcollege, and who may not have pursued any postgraduate studies, are often paid more a t the outset than some of our agricultural chemists who have taken their doctor’s degree and who have already devoted many years to agricultural chemical research. In other words, instead of increasing progressively the salary of these research men commensurate with their experience and ability, and as an incentive t o thorough preparation on the part of young men who are to follow them, they are unfortunately paid so povrly that the young men find no inducement to spend several more years a t the university, especially in view of the present high cost of living. The situation is also aggravated by the fact that the purchasing power of the dollar has shrunk to such an extent that the Federal and State appropriations for the agricultural experiment stations have dwindled to such an extent that even the investigational work already in progress on the low salary basis is being seriously jeopardized, while many of the new problems developing from the research in progress must remain untouched Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the importance of thorough fundamental preparation on the part of those who intend to take up agricultural chemistry, for there is no safe short cut. Thorough general training in inorganic, organic,
Vol.
11,
NO. I I
and physical chemistry is absolutely essential as a basis for the prosecution of the study of chemistry in its relation to agriculture. The agricultural chemist will also be brought in frequent contact with problems related to physics, biological chemistry, physiological botany, bacteriology, and even protozoology. Furthermore, in order to be best equipped for his work he should have an actual knowledge of practical agricultural matters. He should also be familiar with the subjects embraced under agronomy and animal feeding and should be able to read at least French and German freely. I say this notwithstanding the present unfortunate hysteria concerning the teaching of German in American schools. There is now, and always will be, a demand for broadly trained agricultural chemists, with organizing capacity in the various industries, as well as in the agricultural experiment stations. In connection with the work of the agricultural experiment stations it is particularly important to have men in charge who are qualified t o lead into proper channels the enthusiasm and energy of some of the young men who, if left to themselves, might startle the world with some imaginary discovery which, if real, would be calculated to revolutionize agriculture. Well trained men are and always will be needed in these stations t o organize and concentrate research around given projects. They must see that the scientific work is interpreted wisely and that conclusions are not passed out to the farmer while everything is still in a hypothetical or theoretical stage. In a word, men are needed who, to borrow from President Wilson, have the patience and skill to first “make real the things that have been conjectured,” before they are passed along as a guide t o the practical hard-working American farmer who has neither time nor money to waste in chasing visions. BOSTON,W A S S .
CHEMICAL WARFARE1 By MAJORGENERALWILLIAML. SIBERT,CHEMICAL WARFARE SERVICE, U. S . A.
My mind within the last year has been drawn to the necessity of chemical development in every direction in this country. When one looks back he must appreciate the absolutely helpless condition the United States would have been in prior to 1917 had it been called upon to prosecute a war with a great Kation, and had it been unable to control the seas. Its effort to resist a foe would have been on a par with that of China. It would not have had powder enough to last two weeks, and would. have had no nitrates out of which to make more. The absence of a dyestuff industry with its by-product coke ovens, would have limited the supply of raw materials for the manufacture of explosives and gases. Future wars will be more and more chemical wars, more and more scientific, and the nation that has developed its chemical possibilities will enjoy a great advantage. One of the big questions presented for solution to-day in this country is chemical preparedness for war, through the development of chemical industry that has peace application. There is nothing to indicate that Germany, prior to the war, had made any systematic arrangement to utilize her dye factories for war purposes, because many of her chemists were in the beginning called into the military service. This and many subsequent developments of chemical plants for war needs cause one to think that Germany confidently expected the war t o end in a very few months, that she had sufficient materials in storage, and that her mind was not turned to the full utilization of the chemical resources of the nation for the support of the army until after the results a t the Marne. There is one notable exception to this, and that is the development of the processes for the production of ammonia from 1 Address delivered at the Annual Convention of the International Acetylene Association, New York, July 15, 16, and 17, 1919.
Nov., 19x9
T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
atmospheric nitrogen. It was not until the end of 1912 that there was any large-scale production of ammonia by this method. In other words, the Great War was not brought on until the way was clear. That is, it was not brought on until Germany could produce within her own boundaries a supply of ammonia and nitric acid needed in the manufacture not only of her high propellants, but also for the fertilization of the land, so as to make the feeding of the army certain. When it became apparent, after the Battle of the Marne, that the available supply of material for the manufacture of suitable propellants and explosives would soon be exhausted, it was then that the great chemical establishments of Germany were called upon to convert their plants, that had been utilized in making dyestuffs, into high explosive plants and gas plants; it was then that the chemists who had been drafted into the army were returned and utilized with existing plants and with necessary extensions-all in order that the needs of the army might be met. The existence of this great potential reserve made Germany a powerful adversary. It is a peculiar fact that if you probe nearly any line of chemical industry you will find that it has a war application as well as a peace application. I will mention some of the ways that our people think the manufacturing plants For acetylene may be n preparation for war. The ordinary uses of acetylene, the processes of welding and cutting steel, and its use for signal flares and illuminating processes need not be dwelt upon. The use of burning acetylene to light the fields of England in order that all the land possible might be planted, was merely an extension of a well established use. The great development of airplanes in this war called for a large supply of acetone for the preparation of airplane dope. The synthesi,; of this chemical commodity as well as of acetic acid, beginning with acetylene as a starting point, is now a commercial reality. The Government expended over $~oo,ooo,ooo in its nitrate plants, which nitrates were to be used in making propellants and fertilizers, both in times of peace and in times of war. The largest of these nitrate plants utilized the cyanamide process of fixing nitrogen, and this audience need not be told that cyanamide in turn is prepared from calcium carbide. Mustard gas is prepared from ethylene, which is usually prepared from alcohol. Have we not in acetylene a raw material from which ethylene can be prepared on a successful commercial basis Further research and development may establish such a fact. In fact, our research people tell me that the entire subject of the chlorination of acetylene, and the preparalion of its chlorine derivatives, is one that should be carefully investigated, not only from the standpoint of chemical industry in times of peace, but also from the standpoint oE the preparalion of raw materials for war needs. The interaction of acetylene with phosgene, with arsenic trichloride, with stannic chloride, and with antimony trichloride are all fertile fields for investigation. It is apparent, therefore, that we have in the acetylene industry an association with war problems which may be as important as the association of the coal-tar chemical industries with such problems. What the Government needs is chemical industry in every line that nature has made it commercially practicable to develop. We want to be in the same position that Germany was in during this last war, so that whenever research indicates that some new substance or some substance hitherto not manufactured has a military value, the heads of the chemical interests of the country could be called together and given the problem with the full expectation that they could solve it and would solve it, that some existing chemical plant could be changed into one suited for making this substance, that the various well-tried research establishments could soon overcome any difficulty in its manufacture, and that there would always be a personnel available for such manufacture; because
1061
this war has shown more strongly than it has shown anything else, that a country without an extensive organic chemical industry will be seriously handicapped in war against the nation that has such an industry. Of course, there is no need for me to tell this audience these things. If they stop to think, they will know them. But it is always well to impress upon people that there is a public use that might be made of their appliances when their country is itl need, because the average man takes pride in assisting his Government when it is in need. This country needs now to develop a certain and sure nitrate supply; it needs to develop large dyestuff industries; it needs to have its acetylene industries developed and protected, if need be, against hurtful foreign competition. Chemical warfare, as such, made its first appearance in this war. It probably caused more casualties than any other single implement in the war. It has in it more possibilities than any adopted implement of war. If the Chemical Warfare Service of the Army keeps closely in touch with all of the chemical industries of the land, if such industries are sympathetic with the needs and aspirations of the Government, and each of them exchanges research information of value to the other, and if the Congress of the United States insures the development of such chemical industries, we can trust to the ingenuity of our chemists and chemical engineers to see that this country enters no future war, except upon equal terms, with any adversary, in so far as chemical warfare is concerned. Had the Germans known a t Ypres the effect of the first chlorine cloud that they passed over the allied lines, and had they had confidence in their own protective devices and followed closely that chlorine cloud, they could have penetrated to the channel ports-all of which shows what the surprise use of achemical substance means. Although the gases used in the great spring drive by the German? in March and April of 1918 were known gases, the new tactical use of gases made possible through Germany’s ability to make them in great quantities almost resulted in a German victory. By saturating the strong points of the line with mustard gas for 48 hours before an attack, back to a depth of 5 or 6 miles, and by saturating the road crossings through which reserves and ammunition must pass, one of the English armies in the first onset in March was largely paralyzed, its strong points were made ineffective, and the weak points easily taken. A recent inspection of the German gas manufacturing plants and chemical plants in general in the Rhine district, made by representatives from the Chemical Warfare Service, has led to the conclusion that we have nothing to fear from Germany. In fact, the first mustard gas plant which was inspected by one of our men, one of the biggest of these plants in Germany, led to the opinion that the Germans had abandoned their own methods of making mustard gas and had adopted the American method. A t the time the war stopped Germany was making mustard gas a t the rate of IO or I:! tons a day. We had actually made it a t the rate of 40 tons a day, and had a capacity of 80 tons, and we actually shipped to Europe 4000 tons of gas of various kinds, a good deal of which was chlorine, used as a raw material in the manuiactufe of mustard gas and phosgene, which we exchanged with the French for shells loaded with gas. That was our shortage-we did not have the shells for this gas. A t the beginning of the war there were a great many prejudices against the use of gas, a large part of it due to the propaganda against the Germans, picturing the frightfulness of the use of gas. While about 30 per cent of all the casualties among the American troops was due to gas, only about 3 to 4 per cent of these casualties died, and of those who did not die nearly all of them will recover. I read a report not long ago from a
~ 0 6 2
T H E J O U R N A L OF I N D U S T R I A L A Y D ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y
surgeon who, in giving the results of his observations on
2000
cases of men Who had been gassed 4 Or 5 months PrevioUslY,
stated that there was no indication of the development of tuberculosis, no indication of the opening up of any old tubercular lesions in any of these gas cases, and that the majority of them seemed to indicate that they would become entirely normal. The question of research is one that bothers us a great deal, if the Chemical Warfare Service is to live. The surprise effect of a new chemical is often the most important thing connected with it. For instance, if we could discover a new gas that would penetrate the enemy’s gas mask, manufacture i t secretly in large quantities, and spring it on him as the German sprang the first gas cloud on the English a t Ypres, we might win the campaign. Secrecy is, therefore, one of the most important things connected with OUT research, and it is unfortunate that the average chemist likes to put the results of his investigations in the journals. I have thought of attempting research through the various institutions, through the National Defense council and its relations with the universities and societies; but I feel almost certain that if any of the institutions, the universities or societies, made a discovery, they would advertise it to the world, G~~ warfare research that becomes good than it is than bad. It does the enemy ,doesyou, especially in a countrylike this which is never in a hurry to prepare for war, while others may be, I have thought that, if Congress retains a permanent Chemical Warfare Service the Army, the best plan would be to have one big diplomatic, thoroughly scientific chemist, who would keep in touch with the various institutions and universities which have been doing work along lines similar to those that are indicated as best for US to pursue, and who could go to these institutions and say: “The Government wantsto this man for one year, or t h a t man for two years.” Of course, we would expect to pay the requisite salary. Such a man coming into our laboratories would become thoroughly impressed with the fact that secrecy is, above all, the most important element. I n that way the Government could keep in touch with the work being done by the various chemical and educational institutions in this country, and still maintain secrecy. I believe that is the best plan we could adopt. If we should attempt to have a chemical research organization of om, and commission men in the to such work, they would be certain to get into a rut and get behind the times. The Chemical Warfare Service has a great deal of research information, it has issued many monographs of research a t the American University, it is willing and glad to give any information possible to the industries as long as it does not reveal some important military secret, and it wants to keep in touch with, and work with, the commercial industries in this country. WASHINGTON, D. C.
THE WORK OF THE HARRIMAN RESEARCH LABORATORY, ROOSEVELT HOSPITAL, NEW YORK CITY, IN AFFILIATION WITH THE DIVISION’ OF FOOD AND NUTRITION, MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, U. S. ARMY By K. GEOROBFALK Received June 7, 1919
In November 1917, Major (later Lieutenant Colonel) John R. Murlin, in charge of the Division of Food and Nutrition, assigned the subject, “The Protein Decomposition of Meat,” to the Harriman Research Laboratory for study. Three lines of investigation were begun: ( I ) The chemical study of meat
Vol.
11,
No.
II
spoilage; (2) a study of the factors upon which the toxic actions of spoiled meat depend; (3) a study of the methods for preventing spoilage. The study of the prevention of spoilage resulted in the new vacuum dehydration process, applicable as well to other food products, including fish, fruits, and vegetables. This led t o a comparative study of the enzymes, proteins, and carbohydrates of fresh vegetables and of vegetation dehydrated by different processes. In the study of the chemistry of spoiling meat,’ the guantitative changes in the ammonia, non-protein nitrogen, total creatinine, and purines, were followed in meat broth inoculated with nine different strains of bacteria, most of which were obtained from meat considered responsible for food poisonings. Definite chemical differences were found in the changes brought about by the different bacteria. It is probable that a continuation of this work would aid in making it possible to identify bacteria by their metabolic actions and in the preparation of suitable synthetic media, different for different bacteria. The increase in the ammonia content observed in all these actions was studied further in connection with its use as a test for meat The toxic properties of meat infected with various strains of bacteria obtained from food suspected of having caused poisoning were studied as well as meat from animals suffering from septicaemia. The conclusions from this work together with the published literature show that meat from animals healthy a t the time of slaughter, but becoming infected after killing, if thoroughly cooked, may, in general terms, be considered safe to eat. Meat from animals infected a t the time of slaughter may contain heat-stable toxins and is therefore unsafe as food even if thoroughly cooked.3 The possible formation of methylguanidine from creatine was studied because of the toxic properties of the former. None was found in spoiled meat in quantities Of toxic symptoms.4 sufficientto be the The problems of the existing emergency as related to the use of meat involved transportation and the safety factor of food handling. To solve these problems, a new process of dehydration was developed with Dr. E. M. Frankel. After the principles and method had been worked out on a laboratory scale, the process was applied on a commercial scale with the aid of Prof. Ralph H. McKee, of Columbia University. The method Consists essentially in removing the water from food substances in a vacuum a t a temperature below that at which appreciable changes in the foods occur, supplying the requisite quantity of heat rapidly enough to forestall spoilage. The process was devised mainly for meat and fish but has been applied to vegetables, fruits and other food substances as we11.6 The advantages of the vacuum process as compared with the older air-blast dehydration processes are ( I ) shorter time required for dehydration; ( 2 ) applicability to such products a s meat and fish; (3) general character and appearance of products; (4) more economical operation; (5) smaller chemical changes. The disadvantage a t present is a greater initial cost of apparatus, but this would be written off in a few months of operation. The study of the dehydration process for various foods led to the question of changes taking place in vegetables on simple treatments, such as dehydration. The destruction of the antiscorbutic property toward guinea pigs of certain vegetables dehydrated by the air-blast process indicated the timely importance of such studies. In general, the question of food hormones (including in this term vitamines, antiscorbutic property, growth-producing property, etc.) has become prominent 1
K. G. Falk, E. J. Raumann and G. McGuire, J . Bid. Chem., 37
(1919), 525. 2
a 6
K. G. Falk and G . McGuire, I b i d . , 37 (19191, 547. I. Greenmald, J . Pub. Health, 8 (1919), 595. Chem. (1919), 1109. THISJOURNAL, 11 (1919), 1036.
I, Greenwald, J .
