VAMAN R. KOKATNUR New York City
THEBEGINNING of chemical warfare is generally traced to the Grecian stinkpot, and as Greece is believed to have cradled modern civilization it is not surprising that we should find in the history of that country reliable evidence of the origin of chemical warfare. The fact that many civilizations may have preceded that of Greece suggests that the parentage of the Grecian civilization lies within the annals of an earlier and perhaps greater dynasty. The civilization of Greece is relatively young in the history of the world and unfortunately the continuity of its history is not unbroken, thus making investigation somewhat difficult. One might turn with good reason to a search of the great epics of Greece, to the Iliad and t o the Odyssey, but here little or no trace of the employment of chemical warfare is to be found. From careful investigation, therefore, it is suggested that India might lay substantial claim, both from its antiquity and the evidence in the pages of its history, t o precedence as the country of origin of chemical warfare.
into four phases or periods, each of approximately a thousand years duration; this estimate being founded mainly on the work of Jacoby, Tilak and Vaidya.= We find an advanced civilization in India during the first period and evidence of the existence of all elements of useful branches of knowledge. The Indian language was the most highly developed in the world at this time. The second period was even more notable on account of the development of philosophy and sciences and might well be regarded as the cultural zenith of Indian history. All the landmarks of science and philosophy belong to this'period. SOURCE-MATERIAL
Before presenting arguments and proofs it is well briefly to describe certain high points of Indian history to which we will refer. The ancestors of the present Aryan Indians migrated into India from the north many milleniums ago. The exact date of this emigration is unknown today and possibly never will be known, but scholars have estimated the time to have been somewhere between 10,000 and 2000 years before Christ. Jacoby and Tilakl set this period in the fifth of sixth millenium B.C. and based their conclusions upon certain astronomical evidences occurring in the most ancient Hindu scripturesthe Vedas. . This age we will refer to as the "Vedic age" (4000-3000 B.c.). In the next age (3000-2000 B.c.) were conceived the various philosophies and sciences, and this age may be termed the "Upanishad period." The third period (2000-650 B.c.) includes the growth of settled life when great empires grew and decayed. I n ancient India this period of dynastic birth and decline may be termed the "Epic period." The next or fourth phase (650 B.c.-800 A.D.) starts with the birth of Buddha and ends about the eighth or ninth century A.D.; this might benamed the "Buddhistic or classical period." In this way Indian history before Christ is divided
The Vedic period is known to have three works on military art, of which two only have been found. This art is known generically as Dhanurmeda; the ending "veda" means knowledge and is derived from the same root as the words wise, wisdom, and wissenshajt; the three works on the subject were probably written in the latter part of the Vedic age or the first part of the second or Upanishad age. About the same time certain systematic treatises on Vedic literature came to be known as "Samhitas." Among these occur works known as "Bhrigu Samhita" and "Brihat Samhita," which also deal with warfare. Then there are many books on law and ethics referring to this subject. Among these may be mentioned "Manusmriti" and the three 'LNiti-shastras," by Kamandaki, Kautilya and Shukra. These perhaps belong to the fourth age, i. e., about the beginning of the Christian era, although the material and information is supposed to be drawn from literature of the first or second'age. The two great epics of India, the "Ramayana" and "Mahabharat" describe both the theoretical and practical approaches t o warfare as exemplified in two of the great wars. These works describe the tactics, formations and various military weapons in such detail ,as to leave no doubt regarding the status of the art. Of course, the epics are from the third or Epic age, although they might have been written in the latest age, a t about the beginning of the Christian era. There are also many miscellaneous works such as "Yukti-Kalpataru," "Maya-mata," certain Upanishads, storybooks and dramas which contain some of this information. One of the most ancient storybooks, the "Pancha Tantra," which was translated into Latin and other languages at about the time of the Christian
I TILAK,B. G., "Aretic Home of the Vedas," Tilak Brothers, Poona, India, 1925.
VAIDYA,C. V., "History of Sanskrit Literature," published by C. V. Vaidya, Poona, India, 1930.
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era, devotes one whole book to teaching the art of warfare.
attack]." Similar statements are found in the "Dhanurveda" by Jamadagni.
STATUS OF THE ART IN GENERAL
CHEMICAL WARFARE
Their knowledge of gunpowder, guns, cannons, and many other subjects is obvious m these writings. They classified the various forms of warfare and concluded that mysterious or chemical warfare was the best and most humane. They understood that chemical warfare and surprise a t t a c h produced heavy casualties. They also realized the importance of espionage and counter-espionage. They did not trust the treaties or promises of the enemy and had commanded that one ought always to be prepared to browbeat the enemy. We will quote a few important passages from some of these books and the reader may form his own opinion regarding the status of the art. The following are from Sarcar's translation of Shukra's "Nitishastra," chiefly Chapter IV, Section I, on Army: "Astra is that which is thrown or cast by means of charms, machines or fire." (It is believed that "astras of charms" are chemical warfare weapons.) "The king who desires victory should use 'charmed astra' first and in its absence should use 'tubular astra.' " The tubular astras are evidently guns and cannons. "The nalikastra is the cylindrical or tubular instrument to be used by infantry and cavalry, having a horizontal and straight hole a t the origin, the length of two cubits and a half . . . which has fire produced by the pressure of a machine on flint . . holds gunpowder in the interior . . . . The composition of gunpowder is given as five parts of nitrate salt, one part sulfur, and one part charcoal. It is interesting to note in this connection that all these constituents were indigenous to India. "Experts make gunpowders (literally-fire powder) in various ways and of white and other colors according to the relative quantities of constituents, e. g., charcoal, sulphur, nitre, and red lead, orpiment, realgar, iron filings, indigo, camphor, lead, etc." "The balls are made of iron, lead and other metals." "The balls in the instruments are flung a t the aim by the touch of fire." "The daiwilca warfare [Divine, or best] is that in which charms [chemicals] are used, the 'asura or next best' is that in which mechanical instruments are used and the lowest is that in which hands and hand-held weapons are used." "That war with mysterious or charmed instruments is known to be the best of all in which the foes are destroyed by arrows and other a r m rendered powerful through being applied with mysterious charms." "The war with mechanical instruments leads to great destruction of the enemy in which balls are flung a t the objective by the application of gunpowder in cylindrical fire-ms." "There is no warfare which annihilates the powerful enemy so much as the Kutayuddha [Surprise or deceitful
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This forms part of the warfare conducted with the aid of projectiles. Projectiles are divided into two kinds depending upon their quality and three kinds depending upon the way they are thrown. Whiie the word L'projectile" is not synonymous with chemical warfare agents and might include evena stone discharged from a sling, many of the projectiles mentioned leave no doubt as to their similarity to the chemical warfare agents. One division of projectiles is known as Mayic signifying that they are mysterious, illusory, or magical in character. It is also stated that these produce incalculable casualites. Nearly a score of these, together with the effects, have been mentioned by name in the two epics "Ramayana" and "Mahabharat." The very names of these are indicative of their nature. Thus Agneyastra means a projectile of fire, since the word astra means a projectile and agneya means "of fire." The latter word in derivation is allied to the English "ignition." The name Sammohanastra signifies a projectile that produces stupor, enchantment, or hypnosis. The name Timirastra signifies a projectile that produces darkness or blindness, and, therefore, a tear gas. Jrimbhakastra signifies a projectile that produces prolonged yawning. Varunastra signifies a projectile with salty liquids, i. e., probably acid; and Vayauyastra a projectile with air or smoke. The characteristics of the other projectiles are difficult to interpret. The effects of some of them were to quench fire, produce optical illusions, horrible sounds, etc. It is interesting to note that the Hindus seem to have used antichemical projectiles to counteract others, however fanciful this may appear. This is quite suggestive, but seems as though it were an unmistakable prediction of today's technique of countermeasures in warfare on sea and land. Many of these weapons were projected from bows in the form of arrows. For this purpose arrows were made hollow or were provided with hollow knobs. While it is difficult to identify these missiles positively as chemical warfare agents, all evidence points to such a conclusion. The following quotations from the "Ramayana," of about 2000 B.c., and the "Mahabharat," of about 1500 B.c., indicate the nature of the secret or mysterious weapons, which we believe are chemical warfare weapons: "Ramayana," 2000 B.c., R. C. Dutt's translation: "Vislinu's wondmus weapon take, Heavenly artisCVishwakarman shaped this bow of heavenly make; Take this shining dart of Brahma radiant like a. tongue of flame,
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Eped by good and worthy ascher never shall it miss its aim, Impious foes of bright Immortals, know these weapons dread and dire V e e page 272 for key to letters in parentheses.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
readings of the epics of India cannot fail to bring before one?s mind a clear connection between the ancient Deadly as the hissing serpent are these darts with points illumined "t warfare and that practiced in the last war' By the flaming shafts of R m a , thou shalt die hy will of Heaven, More particularly, when one reads of Jire weapons, Matchless in his magic weapons, then he hurled his Naga-dart, Serpent noose upon his foeman, drainiuglife blood from the heart. smoke screens, hypnotic weapons, and antiweapoas, Vainly sought the unseen warrior, dealing nuresisted blow, this becomes clearer. R a m and the powerless (b) Laxman fell and fainted on the field, should be noted that the epics are not the only (4 With his dartslikeshootingsunheams cleft eachmowasit came, ancient which this w e find mention of such magical missiles even in the Ravana drew at last his Sakti gift of Gods (d) in days of Yore. Deadly arrows keen and flaming from tbe hero's weapon broke; Vedas and Upanishadas. There are a t least three Then with weapons consecrated, hid in mists as once before reported treatises on warfare which also mention them. Indrajit on helpless foeman did his fatal (b) arrows pour. Then the many Nitishastras> SamThen on &ma and on Lsxman, from his dark and misty hitas and nearly eighteen semihistorical Puranas also Indrajit, disoharged his arrows bright ss sunhethrough cloud, mention them. Therefore, this knowledge was not To the holy Nikumbhila, Indrajit in secret hies restricted to a few isolated individuals but had found For the rites which yield him prowess, hide him in the cloudy favor with the intellectual hierarchy of the dieerent skies. ages. Like a coward hid beneath a mantling cloud, (b) The autobiopaphy of chemical warfare as gleaned Thou hast battled like s caitiff, safe behind the sheltering shroud (b); from linguistic evidence also points unmistakably t o Until Rama in his ire, wielded Brahma's deathful wespon ilamiug this Conc~usion,~~t us see what the various agents with celestial fire; themselves have to say. First, the word Astra, comes Weapon which the Saint Agastya had unto the hero given, from a root ma, meaning to throw or project, and thereWinged as lightning dart of Indra, fatal as the bolt of Heaven Wrapped in smoke and flaming flashes, speeding from the circled fore refers to a projectile or missile. These projectiles, how." from the qualitative standvoint. are divided into two classes aciording to ancient treatises. The second "Ramayana," M. N. Dutt's translation: clsss is known as mayik astras. This signifies that the 'Ravana discharged seven shafts furnished with knobs, projectiles referred t o are magical or illusory or mysThereupon Laxman split them UP with sharp pointed arrows, terious. ~h~ mayic is identical with the ~ ~ ~ l Ravana hurled a t Laxman the dart resembling smoky fire sendnn livinv flames fh) word "maeic." If we remember that the verv word ine a ... ...--. And La-n hath been w&dedwith the d a r t a n d h a t h ~ u d d e n l ~chemistry i s derived from a word which means""black been stupefied, (e) art," we-will understand the significance of the term And others dropped down-and somelay insensible as if dead; (e) magical projectiles. Then he took an arrow of Indra. whetted and knobbed end like ~~~-~ In ancient civilizations knowledge and education unto the destroyer himself, And he sent a shaft reciting a formula for the Agneya wespon and were not common hut one exclusive t o the sacred these a t his arrow as well as how flamed up. few. Therefore, those who possessed knowledge Then Aiksya used Rudrastra as a counter (d) weapon, guarded it with jealous care and called it by names And there like a pair of infuriated serpents those arrom With their heads ilaming in energy, baffled each other in the sky which signified that it was obtained by supernatural means. They felt sure that such tricks would even and then fell down to earth, And clouding the whole sky with smoke that effluleent one prevent anvone from attem~tinet o discover anvthine enveloped frost, hid hi&lf fmm theifgaze, ahout it. ~ v e nas late as the 15th century, koge; And in that terrible darkness (b) of clouds began to make a down- B~~~~ cryptic language in describing chemical pour of arrows, etc. f o m d a s to keep this knowledge secret from curiosity Theroupon Rema, began to aim his sharp shafts to the d&dion mongers. In his own time he was known as a magician whence the arrows came; Like unto the sun hidden in clouds they could see neither his and was expelled from England for practicing black countenance and motion nor his how (b) and arrows, magic. Thus the term "magic projectiles" signifies And smit by Laxmen with mows . .' . Indrajit for a while was that the projectiles are magical in and are made stupified and had his senses overwhelmed, (e) And derced the son of Ravens with shafts resemhlinz the venom by magical or secret formula. Indiaas endowed various natural phenomena with qualities and personified them. of a poisonous serpent,." All of such persons were known as gods-Asuras. All "Mahabharat," 1500 B.c., P. C. Ray's4 translation: the magic projectiles, depending on their qualities, are "Beholding B h i m overwhelmed by Narayanastra, Arjuns, for presided over by some god and are named after them. hatling its energy covered him with Varunastra, the fire of that Thus Agneyastra, Pasupatastra, Narayanastra, etc., (d) . . in consequence of the weapon consumed them not . refer to well-known gods in Indian mythology: Agni, force of Varuna weapon." Timira, Varuna, Brahma, Indra, Pasupati, Narayan, Whether one finds the evidence contained in the foregoing quotations to be convincing or not it cannot he '$what ~~~t~~~~~ ~ ~ by harnessing h ~ denied that chemical warfare or something similar the natural forces, e. g., fire, air, water,is known as thereto is strongly suggested in these writings. Cursory mantra." This definition from the Yantrarnava chapter -of the "Dhanurveda" conclusively proves that mantra 4 RAY,P. C., "History of Hindu Chemistry," Y O ~ I. and 11, Williams and Norgate Company, London, 1909. signified scientific processes and not mere incantations. Mowing down the ran& of foemen, Scathing like the forest fire.
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between 67 and 789 A.D., while between 265 and 790 187 Chinese scholars went to India to study. This shows that whatever knowledge of firearms, pyrotechny, and chemical warfare the Chinese had in the post-Christian period might have been. obtained from India. Indian niter, under the name of Bengal saltpeter, was the first niter the world ever knew, even in modern times. Nature has provided India with this material as a perennial efflorescence on the soil. Similarly, sulfur was known in ancient India, and the very name sulfur comes from Sanskrit sulwari, meaning enemy of copper. In this connection we might mention two great scholars who have testified in favor of India: Sir Thomas Holland, formerly Director of the Geological Survey of India, testifies as to sulfur, and R. Gustav Oppert,= a German scholar, testifies 8s to firearms and gunpowder. The other prerequisite, the high knowledge of chemistry, cannot be dealt with a t length in this paper. Numerous papers and books published on the subject give a fair idea of this. O ~ p e r t ,in~ his introduction to h i s translation of "Nitishastra" of Shukra, says: "The old Hindus displayed a great ingenuity in inventing injurious and irritating compounds and refined expedients for hurling them amongst the enemy during a combat." He further shows that they used explosives and heated oil, and that heated sand, melted sugar, and pots filled with venomous. snakes mixed with honey, spikes, smoke balls, saws, etc., were frequently employed during combat in ancient India. Duryodhana's soldiers, encamped in Kurukshetra, had at their disposal similar chemical implements of war ("Mahabharat," chapter Udyogapa~a,pp. 155-7). Kautilya's "Arthshastra," translated by Shamsastry, also gives unmistakable evidences of chemical warfare. This work belongs to the 4th century B.C. and its age has been definitely established. Chanakya was the prime minister of King Chandragupta, a contemporary of Alexander. The following quotations need no comment: A.D.
The development of chemical warfare in ancient India is strongly indicated by the so-called doctrine of prerequisites. This doctrine states that without cause no effect is possible, and that the existence of one points to the existence of the other. Thus the development of trigonometry is not possible without its prerequisites, algebra and geometry. Tkie invention of the gramaphone is not possible without the prerequisite knowledge that sound is vibrato~yin nature. This doctrine does not, of course, apply to evolutionary phases of knowledge. If we reduce chemical warfare to one or two such prerequisites we find that an advanced knowledge of chenlistry is one of them, the others being natural resources and the high development of the science of warfare. We have already described the stage of development of the science of warfare. The chemical warfare resources of India were unquestionably matchless. India knew many natural poisons, vegetable, animal, and mineral. Indians used many of these in medicine in a daring way. They knew arsenic, many alkaloids and animal poisons. They were familiar with natural substances which produced sneezing, coughing, itching, blindness of the eyes, stupefaction, and skin-hurning or blisters on the skin. When we realize that many primitive races have used poisoned arrows, their use by a civilized people with a highly developed science of warfare seems to follow logically. The fact that firearms and gunpowder were known in ancient India lends still further support to our theory. The world has believed that gunpowder was a Chinese invention. It is certain that the Chinese do not have ancient proofs of this discovery. We believe that the Indian discovery traveled to China along with the Buddhist missionaries and Europe learned it first from China. The Indian records go much further back than Chinese evidence; furthermore, China did not have the prerequisites for this discovery-the knowledge and existence of both sulfur and nitrate. There is no definite evidence to show that the Chinese knew either. China has no definite evidence of using either fire weapons or chemical warfare weapons earlier than the 4th-or 5th. century, A.D. No authentic work of an earlier date or even hints at chemical warfare and works of 14th and centuries are the first to claim either the firearms or the chemical warfare agents. This is shown in a scholarly paper by H. F. Mayems Coupled with this fact it that from a century Or two be before the Christian era UP to the loth century An. there was considerable intercourse between the Chinese and the Hindus. Liang Chi Chao, President of the University Association of China, in an introduction to Tagore's visit, states that 37 Indians came to China
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"They may destroy him by means of an explosive f i e or a poisonous "He should be destroyed with smoke when he (the Kina) - is in a desert (p. 470). "The smoke caused by burning the above pomsders causes instantaneous death" (p. 495). "The smoke caused by burning the powder destroys animal fife as far as it is ossried off by the wind: (e) "The smoke caused by burning the powder.. mixed with the powder of hoofs. . Causes blindness." (/) "When a man who has kept his eyes secure with the application of ointment (3' and medicinal waters, burns the powder. . the smoke caused thereby destroys the eyes of all animals" (p. 496). if) "~he.eombination of the above two mixtures poisons grass and water." (g) "The smoke caused by burning the mixture causes madness" (p, 498), "When half a Dharana of this mixture . . is thrown into a OPPERT,R. GUSTAV,"Fire Arms and Weapons in Ancient India," published in Madras about 1880.
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Roy. Asiatic Soe. Journal, VI, 1869 74-104. Also see DAVIS, T. L.. AND J. R. WARE,T A ~.JOURYAL, S 24. 522 (1947).
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reservoir. it vitiates the whole mass of water, whoever . . . drinks this water will be poisoned" (p. 499). (g) "The body which is painted with paste burns with fire" I"\r.-"-,. .5(121 "Whenever one of the pills is thrown chanting above mantra, there the whole animallife fallsinto deep slumber" (p. 507). (c) "When'the things . . . of the army are _washed in the tepid water prepared . . . it removes the bad effects of poison!' (z) "The stinking oil. . . removes madness." (9 "The application of the mixture resuscitates those fallen senseless . eating poison." (i) "Having applied these remedies to secure the safety of himself and his army, a King should make use of poisonous smokes and other mixturos to vitiate water against his enemy."
Since Persians as late as Firdousi attributed the effects of rockets to sorcery or magic (jndou) they could ... not have been the inventors of fire weapons or chemical warfare. The fact that the action of certain chemical weapons was not fully understood is undoubtedly responsible for their being called magical. colonel Hime in "Ammunition & Gunpowder," p. 55, says: ''The fact that the first recorded use of fire-arrows .. . ... .. on Greek soil was made by Persian archers, lends some probability to the view that Greek fire was originally borrowed from the zast, ~h~ evidence coining from Greeks should not be neglected in connection with this It will be noticed that both defensive and offensive and chemical warfare, Themistocles mentions the chemical warfare agents were known. These quota- ~~~h~~~~ as 'fighting at a distance with lightning and tions leave no doubt as t o the knowledge of chemical thunder,, ,, warfare agents such as those used in the last war. Alexander in a letter to Aristotle mentions "the EXTERNAL EVIDENCE terrific flashes of flames" which he beheld showered Incendiaries are mentioned in the "Manasollas," and on his army in India (Dante's "Inferno" XLV, 7-31). "Rajatarangini" (1000 A.D.). The story of Alexander Philostratus thus speaks of Alexander's invasion of the the Greatr and the poison damsel of India, who had Punjab: "Had Alexander passed the Hyphasis, then some transmittable disease other than syphilis, is he never would have made himself master of the too well known to need mention. Aristotle's warning fortified habitations of the Brahmin sages. Should an and advice to Alexander in this connection is also of enemy make war upon them they drive him off by means of tempests and thunders as if sent down from interest as evidence. The descendants of the ancient Hindus, the Persians, heaven. The Egyptian Hercules and Bacchus made a also were adepts in chemical warfare. Their know- joint attack on them and by means of various military ledge of this must be traced from their Hindu ancestors. engines attempted to take their places. The sages reAccording to Herodotus, Book VIII, paragraph 52, mained unconcerned spectators until the assault was the Persians discharged the first fire arrows on Greek actually made. Then it was repulsed by fiery whirlwinds and thunders which, being hurled from above, soil against the defenders of the Acropolis. Accordina to the "Shahangmeh" of Firdousi, King dealt destruction on the enemia." Kaus and number of his army were blinded by the Key to Evident Agents Referred to: enemy when they invaded the country of Mazindaran. The countrv of Mazindaran is wrobablv India. (a) Fire or flame weawon. Quintus kurtiuss has a passage, accorkng t o General (bj Smoke screen. Maclagan, indicating that Alexander met with some (c) Hypnotic gas. fire weapons in India. (d) Counter flame gas. We read in the extracts from the work of Xtessias (e) Lethal gas, e. g., HCN, COCI,. on India that an oil from a big worm which had the (f) Tear gas. of igniting ( 0 ) Contaminant gas. -vrouertv * - - evervthina- was used bv the Hindus. Madness producer. 7 Roy. Asiatic Soe. Journal, Bombay Branoh, IV, part I, p. Counter gas t o remove effects of other gases. (i) 213 (1928). ( j ) Protective ointment or measures. J. As. Sac. Bengal, XIV, part I, 44 (1876).
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