Chemical Warfare Research During World War I - ACS Symposium

9 Chemical Warfare Research During World War I A Model of Cooperative Research

Downloaded by TUFTS UNIV on March 18, 2018 | https://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: August 23, 1984 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1984-0228.ch009

DANIEL P. JONES University of Illinois at the Medical Center, Humanistic Studies Program, Chicago, IL 60612

Project-research, a method of organizing research by stipulation of projects and allocation of these to individuals or teams of scientists in separate laboratories, was developed in the United States during World War I in research on chemical warfare. This research was i n i t i a l l y conducted largely by academic chemists as volunteers and later by them in the Research Division of the Chemical Warfare Service of the U. S. Army. Many of the leading American chemists in the 1920s shared the common experience of research on chemical warfare. The model of project-research was tried by the leaders of the division of chemistry and chemical technol ogy of the National Research Council in order to allocate specific research problems and foster cooperative research after the war. The d r a m a t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e s c i e n c e s have made o n modern w a r f a r e became a p p a r e n t d u r i n g W o r l d War I . J u s t a f t e r t h e war R o b e r t M. Y e r k e s e d i t e d a volume e n t i t l e d The New W o r l d of S c i e n c e : I t s Development D u r i n g t h e War, i n w h i c h s e v e r a l s c i e n t i s t s d e s c r i b e d w e l l t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h e y had w i t n e s s e d and t h e r o l e s o f v a r i o u s s c i e n c e s i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h i s c h a n g e . M o r e o v e r , a f e w o f t h e a u t h o r s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e war h a d r e q u i r e d the m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c r e s o u r c e s o f t h e n a t i o n t o an e x t e n t n o t p r e v i o u s l y e n c o u n t e r e d and t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f many teams o f s c i e n t i s t s w o r k i n g on c o o r d i n a t e d p r o grams o f g o v e r n m e n t a l l y s p o n s o r e d r e s e a r c h had been i m p r e s s i v e . F o r e x a m p l e , George E l l e r y H a l e , James R. A n g e l l , and R o b e r t A. M i l l i k a n c ^ t e d t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f s u c h teams a s e v i d e n c e f o r t h e power o f c o o p e r a t i o n i n r e s e a r c h , and t h e y c a l l e d f o r a s i m i l a r l y coordinated approach to s c i e n t i f i c problems i n peacetime 2^). I n t h e decade f o l l o w i n g t h e war, t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l (NRC) assumed m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o r g a n i z i n g

0097-6156/83/0228-0165 $06.25/0 ©

1983 A m e r i c a n Chemical Society

Parascandola and Whorton; Chemistry and Modern Society ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1984.

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s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . Through Hale's i n i t i a t i v e t h e NRC was r e o r g a n i z e d a s a permanent p a r t o f t h e N a t i o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e s , d e d i c a t e d t o t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f p u r e and a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h and t h e p r o m o t i o n o f n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation i n research ( 3 ) . In order to f o s t e r cooperation the NRC was " t o s u r v e y t h e l a r g e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s c i e n c e , t o f o r m u l a t e c o m p r e h e n s i v e p r o j e c t s o f r e s e a r c h , and t o d e v e l o p e f f e c t i v e means o f u t i l i z i n g t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e country f o r d e a l i n g w i t h these p r o j e c t s " ( 4 ) . T h i s approach, " p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h " , w h i c h had p r o v e d t o be e f f e c t i v e i n a c h i e v i n g c o o p e r a t i o n among s c i e n t i s t s i n w a r t i m e was c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e p o s t w a r p e r i o d b y t h e NRC i n s e v e r a l o f i t s d i v i s i o n s . F o r examp l e , t h e c h a i r m e n o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y attempted t o guide c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h d u r i n g the decade f r o m 1919 t o 1929 b y t h e a s s i g n m e n t o f p r o j e c t s t o v o l u n t e e r s . The model t h a t s e r v e d w e l l was t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f w a r t i m e r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s , t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e government a l l y s p o n s o r e d r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s of t h e war, i n i t i a l l y u n d e r t h e B u r e a u of M i n e s and l a t e r a s t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e ( 5 ) . Over o n e - t e n t h o f t h e c h e m i s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s were d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t i n W o r l d War I ( 6 ) . R e s e a r c h o n c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e was s i n g l e d o u t a s a m o d e l o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h a f t e r t h e war b e c a u s e of i t s s i z e , t h e s u c c e s s w i t h w h i c h i t g u i d e d work on i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o j e c t s , and a l s o b e c a u s e many o f t h e c h e m i s t s , p h a r m a c o l o g i s t s , and p h y s i o l o g i s t s f o r m e r l y i n t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e h e l d p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c community i n t h e e n s u i n g decade. Although i t p r o v i d e d i n s p i r a t i o n f o r p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h i n s e v e r a l f i e l d s o f s c i e n c e , the model o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e r e s e a r c h was e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g on A m e r i c a n c h e m i s t s b e c a u s e t h e y f e l t a s p e c i a l k i n s h i p w i t h t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e o f t h e U.S. Army. T h i s k i n s h i p was a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e f a i l u r e i n 1926 o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e t o r a t i f y t h e Geneva P r o t o c o l p r o h i b i t i n g chemical warfare ( 7 ) . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l examine t h e n a t u r e o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h a s i t developed i n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of chemical warfare r e s e a r c h d u r i n g W o r l d War I and w i l l s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s m o d e l may have played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the attempts at i n c r e a s e d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a f t e r t h e war, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y of the N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l . -

Project-Research P r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h , a s i t e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e war and t h r o u g h t h e 1920s had s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s common t o what i s known a s t h e " p r o b l e m a p p r o a c h " a l r e a d y i n e x i s t e n c e a t t h a t t i m e . The U n i t e d S t a t e s government had p i o n e e r e d i n t h e p r o b l e m a p p r o a c h a s e a r l y as 1880 i n t h e Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e , and f o r y e a r s s e v e r a l b u r e a u c h i e f s had a s s i g n e d e x p e r t s i n v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s



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JONES

Chemical Warfare Research

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t o work t o g e t h e r on s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s w i t h l i t t l e r e g a r d t o t r a d i t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s o f s c i e n t i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s C8)The p r o b l e m a p p r o a c h had been e v i d e n t a l s o i n t h e work o f t h e R o c k e f e l l e r I n s t i t u t e and t h e C a r n e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n s i n c e t h e i r establishment i n the f i r s t decade of the c e n t u r y . However, d u r i n g W o r l d War I i n a t t e m p t i n g t o expand t h i s a p p r o a c h t o a s i z e a b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e n a t i o n , new d i f f i c u l t i e s were e n c o u n t e r e d . F i r s t , t h e number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s t o be o r g a n i z e d was q u i t e l a r g e , and s e c o n d , most o f them were n o t employed by t h e f e d e r a l government, b u t had t o be r e c r u i t e d as v o l u n t e e r s t o w o r k f o r l i t t l e o r no r e m u n e r a t i o n . W a r t i m e p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h r e s e m b l e d t h e e a r l i e r p r o b l e m a p p r o a c h i n t h a t i t p r o c e e d e d by t h e s t i p u l a t i o n of r e s e a r c h problems worthy of a t t e n t i o n , a l l o c a t i o n of t h e s e t o s c i e n t i s t s , c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i r r e s u l t s , and s u g g e s t i o n o f f u r t h e r p r o j e c t s . P r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h d i f f e r e d from the problem a p p r o a c h i n t h a t t h e s c i e n t i s t s were g e n e r a l l y u n p a i d v o l u n t e e r s and were s e l e c t e d f r o m a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t were w o r k i n g i n v a r i o u s c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s a t c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s a p a r t . These d i s t i n c t i o n s became c l e a r a f t e r t h e war when, d e s p i t e t h e n e a r l y g e n e r a l agreement among s c i e n t i s t s on t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f c o o p e r a t i o n , t h e r e p r e v a i l e d a f e a r t h a t s u c h schemes m i g h t i n t e r * f e r e w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l independence of s c i e n t i s t s . Projectr e s e a r c h was c o n s i d e r e d a c c e p t a b l e b e c a u s e t h e a u t o n o m i e s o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s were m a i n t a i n e d and t h e i r p r o j e c t s were l i m i t e d t o s p e c i f i c problems of small s i z e . H e n r y P r e n t i s s Armsby, c h a i r m a n o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r e s e c t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Advancement o f S c i e n c e , u r g e d t h e members o f t h e AAAS i n 1919 t o a v o i d b e i n g stampeded by t h e s u c ~ c e s s o f w a r t i m e s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h i n t o an undue e x a l t a t i o n o f t h e v i r t u e s o f s c i e n t i f i c c o o p e r a t i o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n . He explained that The men who worked t o g e t h e r a l m o s t n i g h t and day t o d e v i s e e f f i c i e n t gas masks o r means o f s u b m a r i n e d e t e c t i o n o r methods o f sound r a n g i n g were n o t w o r k men u n d e r t h e o r d e r s o f a s u p e r i o r , b u t f r e e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c i e n t i s t s w i t h t r a i n i n g i n common o r r e l a t e d f i e l d s o f r e s e a r c h and u n d e r t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f a common p a t r i o t i s m . P r e c i s e l y t h i s i s what i s needed t o a c h i e v e t h e v i c t o r i e s o f p e a c e . E f f e c t i v e c o o p e r a t i o n c a n n o t be imposed f r o m above by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y b u t can o n l y come by f r e e democ r a t i c a c t i o n of i n v e s t i g a t o r s themselves. (9). The e x t e n s i o n i n t o p e a c e t i m e o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h r e q u i r e d a commonly h e l d i d e a l s i m i l a r t o t h e " i n s p i r a t i o n o f a common p a t r i o t i s m . " Armsby b e l i e v e d t h i s c o u l d be f o u n d i n t h e p r o g r a m o f t h e n e w l y r e o r g a n i z e d NRC, i n t h a t i t s p l a n f o r c o o p e r a t i v e r e s e a r c h was b a s e d upon t h e v o l u n t a r y i n i t i a t i v e o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s , u n i t e d by t h e i r common i n t e r e s t i n s o l v i n g p r o b l e m s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e advancement o f s c i e n c e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Because the l e a d e r s o f t h e NRC were c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d e p r e v a i l e d


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among A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s , t h e y were q u i c k t o a s s u r e them t h a t the NRC s program d i d n o t r e s t r i c t the freedom of s c i e n t i s t s . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f many s u c h s t a t e m e n t s f r o m 1919 t o 1921 i s t h a t o f V e r n o n K e l l o g g , permanent s e c r e t a r y o f t h e NRC: I know o f n o one i n t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l ... who dreams o f s u g g e s t i n g t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y o f o r g a n i z i n g o r i n any way i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c work o f s c i e n t i f i c g e n i u s . What i s s u g g e s t e d as a d v i s a b l e , b e c a u s e i t was p r o v e d t o be p o s s i b l e and h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e i n o u r w a r t i m e e f f o r t s , i s t o a r r a n g e f o r p l a n n e d , c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k on l a r g e s c i e n t i f i c p r o b l e m s a s r e q u i r e numerous c o o p e r a t i n g w o r k e r s and l a b o r a t o r i e s r e p r e s e n t i n g , o f t e n n o t a l o n e one s p e c i a l f i e l d o r even one m a j o r f i e l d o r realm of s c i e n c e , but s e v e r a l such f i e l d s ( 1 0 ) . P r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h was e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p l a n s o f t h e NRC n o t o n l y t o ensure s c i e n t i f i c freedom but a l s o f o r a f i n a n c i a l r e a s o n . H a v i n g n o s u b s t a n t i a l f u n d s t o s u p p o r t r e s e a r c h i t s e l f , t h e NRC was d e p e n d e n t upon s c i e n t i s t s v o l u n t e e r i n g t h e i r e f f o r t s . In both r e s p e c t s t h e m o d e l o f o r g a n i z a t i o n u s e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e d u r i n g t h e war was f o u n d t o be a v e r y u s e f u l one by t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e NRC a s t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o o r g a n i z e A m e r i c a n s c i e n c e i n t h e 1920s.


1

V o l u n t a r y Nature of Research on Chemical

Warfare

The m o b i l i z a t i o n o f c h e m i s t s f o r r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e was a c c o m p l i s h e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h t h e i r own v o l u n t a r y e f f o r t s and n o t a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y . In f a c t , m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n i t i a l l y had i g n o r e d t h e need f o r any c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a , a l t h o u g h many chem-. i s t s a t t h e t i m e r e c o g n i z e d t h i s need, as d i d the d i r e c t o r o f t h e Bureau of Mines. When t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n t e r e d W o r l d War I i n A p r i l , 1917, t h e Army was u n p r e p a r e d f o r gas w a r f a r e . I t p o s s e s s e d n e i t h e r s u p p l i e s o f gas masks n o r s t a n d a r d c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s , y e t two y e a r s had e l a p s e d s i n c e t h e German army had f i r s t u s e d c h l o r i n e gas a t Y p r e s . I n a d d i t i o n , f r o m 1915 t o 1917 t h e g o v e r n ments o f Germany, F r a n c e , and G r e a t B r i t a i n had e n l i s t e d t h e s e r v i c e s of c h e m i s t s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g programs o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e and had l e a r n e d t h a t r e s e a r c h was e s s e n t i a l i f a n army was t o g a i n an a d v a n t a g e on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d by r e l e a s i n g a new, u n e x p e c t e d c h e m i c a l a g e n t . A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y men were s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e i n 1917. T h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward the i n t r u s i o n o f c h e m i s t s and gas i n t o w a r f a r e h a v e been examined e l s e w h e r e ( 1 1 ) . O t h e r r e a s o n s f o r t h i s l a c k o f p r e p a r a t i o n a r e t h a t i m p r o v e d gas masks had r e d u c e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p o i s o n gas a s a weapon, and a t t h e same t i m e e x t e n s i v e c l o u d gas a t t a c k s l i k e t h e f i r s t a t t a c k a t Y p r e s had become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o c a r r y o u t .



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American o f f i c e r s o n l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e importance o f chemical warf a r e l a t e r i n 1917, when two m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n s were i n t r o d u c e d a t the f r o n t . I t was t h e n t h a t t h e German army f i r s t u s e d m u s t a r d gas ( d i c h l o r o d i e t h y l s u l f i d e ) , a s k i n v e s i c a n t t h a t p r o d u c e d a v e r y h i g h r a t e o f c a s u a l t i e s s i n c e masks were o f l i t t l e p r o t e c t i o n , and t h e B r i t i s h army f i r s t employed t h e L i v e n s p r o j e c t o r , a m o r t a r c a p a b l e o f h u r l i n g a 150-pound drum o f t o x i c c h e m i c a l s i n t o t h e enemy's t r e n c h e s (12) . So i t was n o t b e f o r e l a t e summer o f 1917 t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s War Department c o n s i d e r e d s e r i o u s l y the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a program f o r c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e r e s e a r c h . By then s u c h a program a l r e a d y was u n d e r way, c o n d u c t e d by a few men a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s who t o o k t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of a s s i g n i n g s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s t o c h e m i s t s i n t h e c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s o f t h e c o u n t r y . The N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l had been c r e a t e d i n 1916 i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e war s p e c i f i c a l l y t o s e r v e a s an i n t e r m e d i a r y to p r o v i d e t h e government's C o u n c i l o f N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e w i t h t e c h n i c a l a d v i c e from t h e s c i e n t i s t s of the country. However, few o f t h e NRC c o m m i t t e e s had worked o u t p l a n s f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n when t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n t e r e d t h e war. A proposed survey of e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o make an i n v e n t o r y o f f a c i l i t i e s , e q u i p m e n t , and manpower had n o t y e t begun a t t h e t i m e when many u n i v e r s i t y and c o l l e g e f a c u l t y were o f f e r i n g t h e i r s e r v i c e s t o the government ( 1 3 , 1 4 ) . T h r o u g h o u t 1917 t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y u r g e d a c a d e m i c c h e m i s t s n o t t o e n l i s t i n t h e army b u t w a i t u n t i l t h e government c o u l d a c c e p t t h e i r s e r v i c e s a s c h e m i s t s (15) . M e a n w h i l e , t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s had a l r e a d y assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o n d u c t i n g r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e and had e n l i s t e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f many c h e m i s t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . The B u r e a u ' s p r o g r a m was w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d when i t was p l a c e d f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s u n d e r t h e NRC's c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s gases. S i n c e i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n 1910 a s a b u r e a u o f t h e Department o f t h e I n t e r i o r , t h e Bureau o f M i n e s had m a i n t a i n e d on i t s s t a f f a number o f s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s who s t u d i e d t h e t o x i c a n d a s p h y x i a t i n g gases o f t e n found i n mines. C o n s i d e r i n g t h i s expert i s e t o be o f v a l u e i n t h e a r e a o f gas w a r f a r e , t h e d i r e c t o r o f t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s , Van H. M a n n i n g , o f f e r e d t h e s e r v i c e s o f h i s b u r e a u t o t h e m i l i t a r y c o m m i t t e e o f t h e NRC on F e b r u a r y 8, 1917 (16) . A l t h o u g h h i s o f f e r was n o t a c c e p t e d f o r s e v e r a l months, Manning p r o c e e d e d w i t h p l a n s t o b e g i n r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e i n t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s . The B u r e a u ' s s m a l l r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t y , t h e P i t t s b u r g h E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n , c o u l d n o t accomodate a l a r g e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m , and so Manning d e c i d e d t o s e e k v o l u n t e e r s among c h e m i s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s who w o u l d c o n d u c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e i r own l a b o r a t o r i e s . A c c o r d i n g l y , he i n i t i a t e d an i n v e n t o r y of a v a i l a b l e c h e m i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e o f M i n i n g E n g i n e e r s and t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y . T h e i r members r e c e i v e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s on w h i c h t h e y were to r e p o r t t h e i r a r e a s o f e x p e r t i s e , t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o p a r t i c i -



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p a t e i n w a r - r e l a t e d p r o j e c t s , and t h e amount o f t i m e t h e y c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e ( 1 7 , 1 8 ) . By J u l y , 1917, i n f o r m a t i o n o n o v e r 15,000 p e r s o n s was a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h o s e v o l u n t e e r s who would be a s k e d t o c o n d u c t s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s . Manning c o n s i d e r e d t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s f i l e t o be a n e a r l y c o m p l e t e l i s t of t h e c h e m i s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i n c e t h e membership o f t h e A m e r i can C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y a t t h a t t i m e was 14,500. D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of W o r l d War I M a n n i n g ' s f i l e o f t e n was c o n s u l t e d by o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s t h a t were r e c r u i t i n g s c i e n t i s t s , and most o f t h e c h e m i s t s who l a t e r e n t e r e d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e were i d e n t i f i e d t h r o u g h t h i s f i l e and t r a n s f e r r e d t o u n i t s where t h e y c o u l d s e r v e as c h e m i s t s . The m i l i t a r y c o m m i t t e e o f t h e NRC f i n a l l y a c c e p t e d M a n n i n g ' s o f f e r on A p r i l 3 and c r e a t e d a c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s gases w i t h M a n n i n g as c h a i r m a n ( 1 9 ) . I t was t h r o u g h t h i s c o m m i t t e e o f t h e NRC t h a t t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s r e c e i v e d i t s a u t h o r i t y t o c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e . M a n n i n g , a s c h a i r m a n , c o n d u c t e d i t s f u n c t i o n n e a r l y e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h t h e Bureau o f M i n e s o r g a n i z a t i o n u n t i l t h e NRC c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s gases was d i s s o l v e d on August 10, 1918. I n s e l e c t i n g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f Manning p r i m a r i l y drew upon B u r e a u o f M i n e s s t a f f and a few i n d u s t r i a l and a c a d e m i c c h e m i s t s who had s e r v e d a s c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e B u r e a u i n the p a s t . A t t h e s e c o n d m e e t i n g o f t h e c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s g a s e s , h e l d on A p r i l 21, M a n n i n g c e n t e r e d t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e b e s t p l a n f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s e a r c h program. He e x p l a i n e d t o t h e 18 members p r e s e n t ( h i s s t a f f , s e v e r a l Army and Navy o f f i c e r s , and members o f t h e c h e m i s t r y c o m m i t t e e o f t h e NRC) t h a t i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s i n v e n t o r y o f c h e m i s t s , o f f e r s were c o m i n g i n f r o m many i n d i v i d u a l s and l a b o r a t o r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . F o r e x a m p l e , c h e m i s t s a t t h e Johns H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y had o f f e r e d t h e f r e e u s e of t h e i r s e r v i c e s and t h e u n i v e r s i t y ' s l a b o r a t o r i e s . Manning thought they s h o u l d take advantage of t h e s e o f f e r s r a t h e r than conduct the c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e r e s e a r c h e x c l u s i v e l y i n Bureau of Mines l a b o r a t o r i e s . The d i s c u s s i o n t h e n moved t o t h e way r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e was o r g a n i z e d i n G r e a t B r i t a i n , t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e B r i t i s h d i v i s i o n i n t o o f f e n s i v e and d e f e n s i v e c o m m i t t e e s , and t h e d u p l i c a t i o n s o f e f f o r t w h i c h had r e s u l t e d f r o m e x c e s s i v e s e c r e c y and c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h . The d e c i s i o n was r e a c h e d t h a t one c e n t r a l c o m m i t t e e w o u l d be k e p t c u r r e n t on t h e p r o g r e s s o f a l l r e s e a r c h and t h a t s e v e r a l s u b c o m m i t t e e s would be c r e a t e d r e p r e s e n t i n g s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s , f o r example one to i n v e s t i g a t e new o f f e n s i v e a g e n t s . The s u b c o m m i t t e e s were t o a s s i s t t h e c e n t r a l c o m m i t t e e i n d e f i n i n g r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m s and a s s i g n i n g them t o v o l u n t e e r s . A l l r e p o r t s were t o be s e n t t o t h e c e n t r a l c o m m i t t e e who w o u l d e n s u r e t h a t d u p l i c a t i o n d i d n o t o c c u r and t h a t a l l o f t h e s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s a s s i g n e d were p r o c e e d i n g together. George A. B u r r e l l , a f o r m e r d i r e c t o r o f t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s P i t t s b u r g h l a b o r a t o r y , was s e l e c t e d b y M a n n i n g t o be i n c h a r g e o f



9.

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r e s e a r c h , and he was g i v e n t h e i m m e d i a t e t a s k o f c o m p i l i n g a l i s t of s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h problems f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n t o v o l u n t e e r s . S i n c e t h e NRC had made i t c l e a r t o M a n n i n g t h a t he was t o i n t e r f e r e as l i t t l e as p o s s i b l e w i t h c h e m i c a l i n d u s t r i e s , he t u r n e d h i s a t t e n t i o n t o c h e m i s t s i n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s Ç20). T h r o u g h o u t t h e month o f May, two o f Manning's s t a f f , W a r r e n K. L e w i s and B r a d l e y Dewey, t r a v e l e d t o i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t h e E a s t and Midwest, showing to chemists the l o n g l i s t o f problems compiled by B u r r e l l and e n l i s t i n g t h e i r a i d . On May 25, 1917, t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s a c c e p t e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f 122 c h e m i s t s and e s t a b l i s h e d 28 b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s o f t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s (20 i n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s , f o u r i n i n d u s t r i a l l a b o r a t o r i e s , and f o u r i n g o v e r n mental l a b o r a t o r i e s ) . These l a b o r a t o r i e s and t h e number o f c h e m i s t s w o r k i n g i n e a c h were as f o l l o w s : C a r n e g i e T e c h n i c a l S c h o o l , 5; M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , 2; The J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y , 6; H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , 5; U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , 4; O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 5; U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n , 4; U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , 4; U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i , 1; New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y , 4; C i t y C o l l e g e o f New Y o r k , 2; C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , 3; M a s s a c h u s e t t s A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l e g e , 2; Amherst C o l l e g e , 1; W o r c e s t e r P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e , 4; U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h , 2; C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 4; New H a m p s h i r e U n i v e r s i t y , 1; P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , 2; B r y n Mawr C o l l e g e , 1; B u r e a u o f M i n e s , 4; B u r e a u o f C h e m i s t r y , 4; B u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s , 2; F o r e s t P r o d u c t s L a b o r a t o r y , 6; M e l l o n I n s t i t u t e , 4; P i t t s b u r g h T e s t i n g L a b o r a t o r y , 2; N a t i o n a l E l e c t r i c Lamp Co., 3; N a t i o n a l Carbon Co., 7 (21) . These l a b o r a t o r i e s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e i n i t i a l s i t e s f o r p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e . In o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r p l a n t o have one c e n t r a l r e s e a r c h committee t h a t would c o o r d i n a t e the s p e c i f i c problems a s s i g n e d t o these l a b o r a t o r i e s , t h e c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s g a s e s drew up p l a n s t o c o n s t r u c t a c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y i n W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. The b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y became t h e most i m p o r t a n t one, s i n c e i n t h e c o u r s e o f i t s work many a d d i t i o n a l c h e m i s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y were r e c r u i t e d . Of t h e f o u r members o f t h e c h e m i s t r y d e p a r t m e n t who v o l u n t e e r e d f o r p r o j e c t s , E. Emmet R e i d was t h e most a c t i v e i n t h i s r e g a r d . H i s a s s i g n m e n t was t o s e a r c h among o r g a n i c compounds f o r t h o s e t h a t m i g h t be s u i t a b l e new c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s . He was a u t h o r i z e d by t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s t o employ s i x g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s as a s s i s t a n t s , t h e i r s a l a r i e s b e i n g p a i d by t h e B u r e a u ( 2 2 ) . R e i d p r e p a r e d a l i s t o f s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h a p p e a r e d p r o m i s i n g and s e t out t o s y n t h e s i z e them and e v a l u a t e t h e i r c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . T h i s t a s k p r o v e d t o be t o o l a r g e f o r h i s l a b o r a t o r y , and d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1917 R e i d d i s t r i b u t e d t h e t a s k o f p r e p a r a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c compounds t o o v e r 60 c h e m i s t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y and m a i n t a i n e d an a c t i v e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h them. Many o f t h e s e men had been h i s s t u d e n t s o r had r e c e i v e d t h e i r d o c t o r a l d e g r e e s f r o m the Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y . R e i d a s k e d them t o s u g g e s t a d d i t i o n a l compounds t o him and a s s i g n e d t h e s y n t h e s i s o f t h e s e



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compounds and t h o s e w i t h r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s t o o t h e r v o l u n t e e r s . I n some c a s e s the d u p l i c a t i o n o f e f f o r t was d e l i b e r a t e ; R e i d gave t h e same s y n t h e t i c p r o b l e m s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o s e v e r a l c h e m i s t s . They s u b m i t t e d r e p o r t s and i n many i n s t a n c e s m a i l e d s a m p l e s o f t h e h i g h l y t o x i c compounds t o R e i d . F i f t y - s i x s u c h s a m p l e s were r e c e i v e d b y him d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e war. Reid's laboratory p r e p a r e d a n a d d i t i o n a l 70 compounds and s u b m i t t e d s a m p l e s o f a l l of t h e s e f o r t o x i c o l o g i c a l t e s t i n g as t h e y were p r e p a r e d . Based on t h e r e p o r t s of t h e s e t e s t s R e i d a t t e m p t e d t o c o r r e l a t e s t r u c t u r e and t o x i c i t y and a s a r e s u l t s u g g e s t e d many r e l a t e d compounds w h i c h he added t o t h e o r i g i n a l l i s t o f compounds t o be s y n t h e s i z e d . R e i d was a p p o i n t e d a c o n s u l t a n t t o t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s , i n i t i a l l y a t a s a l a r y of one d o l l a r a y e a r . He p r e f e r r e d n o t t o a c c e p t a c o m m i s s i o n i n t h e Army, y e t s u c h c o m m i s s i o n s i n c r e a s i n g l y became common among c h e m i s t s i n t h e b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s a s a way of r e c e i v i n g g o v e r n m e n t a l payment f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . For e x a m p l e , a t t h e end o f t h e war t h e r e were 34 s o l d i e r - c h e m i s t s s t a t i o n e d a t the Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y l a b o r a t o r y ( 2 3 ) . The b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r y e s t a b l i s h e d a t Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y was g i v e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t e s t i n g the t o x i c i t y o f samples p r e p a r e d by t h e g r o u p o f c h e m i s t s o r g a n i z e d b y R e i d . T h r o u g h o u t 1917, Y a n d e l l H e n d e r s o n , a Y a l e p h y s i o l o g i s t and a c o n s u l t a n t t o t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s , d i r e c t e d t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e s t a f f o f a b o u t 50 c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l a t t h i s s t a t i o n ( 2 4 ) . The b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n was a s s i g n e d t h e s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t s o f p r o l o n g e d e x p o s u r e t o low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t t o x i c compounds, w i t h the o b j e c t o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e h a z a r d s w h i c h w o u l d accompany t h e i r manufacture on a l a r g e s c a l e . A t the h e i g h t of i t s a c t i v i t y t h i s l a b o r a t o r y i n v o l v e d 15 members o f t h e f a c u l t y . Some were commiss i o n e d i n t h e Army, but most s e r v e d as c i v i l i a n c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e Bureau of Mines at a token s a l a r y . They were a s s i s t e d b y 33 s o l d i e r s who were a s s i g n e d t o d u t y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n . L a t e r i n t h e war, t h e w o r k was expanded t o i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y o f t h e m e d i c a l e f f e c t s o f gas p o i s o n i n g and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s a l v e s f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t m u s t a r d gas ( 2 5 ) . The l a r g e s t of t h e b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s was e s t a b l i s h e d a t C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. I t s s t a f f o f a b o u t 75 c a r r i e d out r e s e a r c h on a r s e n i c compounds and s u b s e q u e n t l y d e v e l oped one o f t h e new war g a s e s p r o d u c e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g W o r l d War I , L e w i s i t e Ç26). The m o i s t u r e and gas c o n t e n t o f c h a r c o a l s and t h e a c t i v a t i o n o f c h a r c o a l f o r use i n gas masks was t h e m a j o r p r o j e c t u n d e r t a k e n by t h e b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r y a t P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y . George A. H u l l e t , a p r o f e s s o r of p h y s i c a l chemistry a t the U n i v e r s i t y , d i r e c t e d a s t a f f o f 14 c h e m i s t s who as s o l d i e r s were s t a t i o n e d t h e r e d u r i n g t h e war. F r e d N e h e r , a n o r g a n i c c h e m i s t , was ass i s t e d b y t h r e e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s employed b y t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s i n t h e s y n t h e s i s of s e v e r a l compounds s u g g e s t e d b y E. Emmet R e i d (27).



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The w o r k o f many o f t h e s e l a b o r a t o r i e s was c o o r d i n a t e d d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1917 b y James F. N o r r i s , a c h e m i s t o f t h e M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y , who v i s i t e d e a c h r e g u l a r l y t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p r o g r e s s o f t h e o t h e r l a b o r a t o r i e s a n d to s u g g e s t a d d i t i o n a l p r o j e c t s . The r e g u l a r r e p o r t s o f R e i d a n d H e n d e r s o n p o i n t e d o u t s e v e r a l compounds t h e c h e m i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d be u s e f u l as war g a s e s , b u t N o r r i s f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o a s s i g n t o t h e b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s t h e much more d a n g e r o u s t a s k s o f s e t t i n g up small-scale s y n t h e t i c p l a n t s f o r t h e production o f these agents. F o r t h i s r e a s o n a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e amount o f t i m e s p e n t b y N o r r i s i n v i s i t i n g b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s , M a n n i n g p r e s s e d on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y he h a d e n v i s i o n e d f r o m t h e beginning. I n September o f 1917 t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s e x p e r i m e n t s t a t i o n a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. began o p e r a t i o n s . A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y gave t h e u s e o f i t s b u i l d i n g s t o t h e B u r e a u f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e war and t h i s s i t e grew t o become t h e m a i n center f o r chemical warfare research i n the United States during W o r l d War I . W i t h i n a f e w months a l a r g e number o f c h e m i s t s i n t h e Army were a s s i g n e d t o t h i s s t a t i o n , h a v i n g been i d e n t i f i e d through t h e Bureau o f Mines f i l e o f chemists. I n a d d i t i o n , many a c a d e m i c c h e m i s t s were b e i n g r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e i r t e a c h i n g d u t i e s i n order t o serve as f u l l - t i m e c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e Bureau o f Mines, and t h e y came t o t h i s e x p e r i m e n t s t a t i o n t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e x p a n d i n g work on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e . Project-Research

on C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e

On September 2 1 , 1917, t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Army s t a t e d t h a t i n v i e w o f t h e g r o w i n g number o f s o l d i e r s b e i n g a s s i g n e d t o war g a s r e s e a r c h , t h e work c o u l d be a d m i n i s t e r e d b e t t e r u n d e r m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l ( 2 8 ) . Manning and o t h e r l e a d e r s o f t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s who h a d c r e a t e d t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m opposed t h i s t r a n s f e r t o m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l and c i t e d t h e accomplishments o f t h e e f f i c i e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n t h e y h a d c r e a t e d ( 1 6 ) . The A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y a l s o defended t h e c i v i l i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n under the Bureau o f Mines and e x p r e s s e d f e a r t h a t c o n t r o l by t h e m i l i t a r y m i g h t s u p p r e s s " t h e s p i r i t o f o r i g i n a l i t y , d a r i n g and speed i n f o l l o w i n g new t r a i l s , so e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s u c c e s s f u l p r o s e c u t i o n o f r e s e a r c h " (29). Despite these p r o t e s t s , chemical warfare r e s e a r c h i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s was t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e Army on June 2 6 , 1918. T h i s transfer actually did not a l t e r the p o l i c i e s or the administration of r e s e a r c h , b u t i t d i d c a u s e most o f t h e c h e m i s t s who were d e s i g nated c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e Bureau o f Mines a t a token s a l a r y t o accept commissions i n t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e , a newly c r e a t e d b r a n c h o f t h e Army. The C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e b r o u g h t a l l e l e m e n t s o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e u n d e r one a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h e a d , from t h e chemists s e r v i n g i n v a r i o u s gas regiments o p e r a t i n g i n combat i n F r a n c e t o t h o s e i n t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n d e s i g n i n g new



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c h e m i c a l agents. With t h i s t r a n s f e r t h e Bureau o f Mines s t a f f o f 1682 s c i e n t i s t s a t t h e A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n a n d a t t h e b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y became t h e R e search D i v i s i o n o f t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e . Of t h i s number, I , 034 were d e s i g n a t e d a s t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l , m o s t l y c h e m i s t s , and 648 a s n o n - t e c h n i c a l , a u x i l i a r y p e r s o n n e l ( 1 6 , 3 0 ) . On November I I , 1 9 1 8 , t h e number o f c h e m i s t s i n t h e Armed F o r c e s numbered 5,404 a n d 4,003 o f t h e s e were employed i n c h e m i c a l work ( 3 1 ) . A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e c h e m i s t s ( a b o u t 2000 o f t h e s e ) were memb e r s o f t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n a n d most o f t h e s e were engaged i n t h e t y p e o f r e s e a r c h t h a t h a d become c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e , p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h . The R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y c o n d u c t e d r e s e a r c h on a l l aspects of chemical warfare; i n c l u d i n g the study o f v a r i o u s charc o a l s and o t h e r a b s o r b e n t s f o r g a s , i n i t i a l s e l e c t i o n and s y n t h e s i s o f p o s s i b l e chemical agents, t e s t i n g these f o r t o x i c i t y , and d e v e l o p m e n t o f s m a l l - s c a l e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s . T h i s p r o g r a m was d i v i d e d i n i t i a l l y i n t o t e n g e n e r a l r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g o f f e n s e , pharmacological research, defense, e d i t o r i a l work, a n d s m a l l - s c a l e m a n u f a c t u r i n g . I n d i v i d u a l p r o j e c t s were a s s i g n e d t o s m a l l groups o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s a t t h e c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y and b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s b y t h e s e c t i o n c h i e f s , most o f whom were a t t h e c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y d u r i n g 1918. The s e c t i o n c h i e f s p r e p a r e d r e p o r t s e v e r y two weeks a n d summary r e p o r t s l e s s f r e q u e n t l y f o r t h e c h i e f o f t h e e d i t o r i a l s e c t i o n , W i l d e r D. B a n c r o f t . B a n c r o f t ' s s t a f f p r e p a r e d summaries o f t h e r e l a t i v e p r o g r e s s o n t h e v a r i o u s p r o j e c t s and p o i n t e d o u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o o t h e r r e s e a r c h o f developments i n s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s . T h e s e summaries were c i r c u l a t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n s a s w e l l a s o t h e r d i v i s i o n s o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e . The e d i t o r i a l s e c t i o n a l s o p r e p a r e d r e p l i e s t o r e p o r t s r e c e i v e d from t h e B r i t i s h and F r e n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s and p r e p a r e d summary r e p o r t s o f A m e r i c a n p r o g r e s s o n p r o b l e m s o f common i n t e r e s t t o t h e A l l i e s , s u c h a s a method f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f m u s t a r d g a s . The work o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n o f t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n i s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e method o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h a n d i t a l s o shows t h e c o o p e r a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d between c h e m i s t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n a n d the p h y s i o l o g i s t s and p h a r m a c o l o g i s t s i n t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n ; t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p was c i t e d a f t e r t h e war a s a n example o f c o o p e r a t i v e r e s e a r c h t h a t m i g h t b e u s e f u l i n p r o m o t i n g r e s e a r c h on new d r u g s . The work o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n a c t u a l l y began i n May, 1917, when E. Emmet R e i d was a s k e d t o u n d e r t a k e t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o r g a n i c compounds and t o p r e p a r e s u c h o n e s a s were s u i t a b l e f o r c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e . A s s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , R e i d a s s i g n e d t h e s y n t h e s i s o f s p e c i f i c compounds o r c l a s s e s o f r e l a t e d compounds t o p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l c h e m i s t s a n d t o g r o u p s i n t h e branch l a b o r a t o r i e s as w e l l as chemists working i n h i s l a b o r a t o r y at t h e Johns Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y . A f t e r t h e work was t r a n s f e r e d t o c o n t r o l o f t h e Army t h e w o r k o f t h e new o f f e n s e s e c t i o n was p r i -



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m a r i l y centered a t American u n i v e r s i t y , but p r o j e c t s continued t o be a s s i g n e d t o t h e v o l u n t e e r s R e i d h a d o r g a n i z e d . I n June, 1918, t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f a s t a f f o f 165 a t t h e c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y , b u t a l s o 50 c h e m i s t s i n s e v e n of t h e branch l a b o r a t o r i e s and a l s o a few s c a t t e r e d i n d i v i d u a l chemists i n other u n i v e r s i t i e s . The b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s s e c t i o n were a t W o r c h e s t e r P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e , B r y n Mawr C o l l e g e , t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y , P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y , and Columbia U n i v e r s i t y (23^ 3 2 ) . I n J u n e , 1918 L a u d e r W. J o n e s , f o r m e r l y o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C i n c i n n a t i , was a p p o i n t e d c h i e f o f t h e s e c t i o n . A g e n e r a l p a t t e r n emerged i n t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n whereby whenever a new r e s e a r c h p r o b l e m a r o s e i t w o u l d be g i v e n t o a team o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s a t one o f t h e above l a b o r a t o r i e s . The c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y a t American U n i v e r s i t y had s i x r e s e a r c h u n i t s , t h r e e o f t h e s e w e r e d e v o t e d t o o r g a n i c c h e m i s t r y , two t o a n a l y t i c a l c h e m i s t r y and one t o i n o r g a n i c c h e m i s t r y . Each o f t h e seven b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s above c o n s t i t u t e d a n a d d i t i o n a l u n i t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e t a s k o f d e v i s i n g a method f o r t h e s y n t h e s i s o f m u s t a r d gas was a s s i g n e d t o a u n i t o f o r g a n i c c h e m i s t s a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f James B. Conant ( 3 3 ) . Conant d i v i d e d t h i s problem i n t o the study o f three s y n t h e t i c processes: 1) t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f e t h y l e n e ; 2) e t h y l e n e c h l o r o h y d r i n f r o m e t h y l e n e ; a n d 3) m u s t a r d g a s f r o m e t h y l e n e c h l o r o h y d r i n . F o r t h e l a t t e r p r o j e c t Conant e n l i s t e d t h e a i d o f Moses Gomberg a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n , a n d Gomberg s u b s e q u e n t l y s u b m i t t e d f r o m h i s l a b o r a t o r y a t M i c h i g a n a r e p o r t on t h e s y n t h e t i c p r o c e s s h e d e v e l o p e d ( 3 4 ) . An a l t e r n a t e method f o r t h e s y n t h e s i s o f m u s t a r d gas was a c h i e v e d b y C o n a n t ' s u n i t i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h a B r i t i s h r e s e a r c h team. I t was t y p i c a l o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h i n t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n t h a t t h e same t a s k was g i v e n t o d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s s o t h a t t h e y m i g h t p u r s u e i n d e p e n d e n t p a t h s a n d r e s u l t s w o u l d be a t t a i n e d i n the s h o r t e s t time. C o o p e r a t i o n between teams o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s was i m p o r t a n t on p r o j e c t s i n v o l v i n g t h e s e a r c h f o r new c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e a g e n t s . D u r i n g a p e r i o d o f l e s s t h a n two y e a r s t h e c h e m i s t s o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n p r e p a r e d o v e r 1600 compounds f o r e x a m i n a t i o n a s p o s s i b l e war g a s e s ( 3 5 ) . T h i s was made p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n o f c h e m i s t s w i t h members o f t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n throughout t h e i n i t i a l stages i n t h e development o f a p r o m i s i n g new c h e m i c a l a g e n t . The g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e was a s f o l l o w s . A sample o f t h e new compound was p r e p a r e d by one team, t h e n i t s p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s were s t u d i e d by a n o t h e r team t o determine i t s s t a b i l i t y i n s h e l l c a s i n g s , i t s v o l a t i l i t y , e t c . Meanwhile, a u n i t o f t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n examined i t s biological effects. A m e e t i n g was t h e n a r r a n g e d between t h e chemists, p h y s i o l o g i s t s , and pharmacologists i n v o l v e d , t o decide i f t h e compound was s u i t a b l e f o r u s e i n combat. I f s o , t h e t a s k o f d e v e l o p i n g a s m a l l - s c a l e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s was g i v e n t o a n o t h e r s e c t i o n , a n d a t t h e same t i m e a sample o f t h e compound was



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e x a m i n e d b y t h e d e f e n s e s e c t i o n t o ensure t h a t A m e r i c a n g a s masks c o u l d be m o d i f i e d t o g i v e a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h i s compound. I f a l l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o t h i s p o i n t gave s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s , t h e p r o j e c t was s u b m i t t e d t o t h e Development D i v i s i o n o r d i r e c t l y t o t h e Gas M a n u f a c t u r i n g D i v i s i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l Warfare Service. O f t e n t h e c h e m i s t s who w e r e most f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e new a g e n t were t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e s e d i v i s i o n s w i t h t h e p r o j ect. The e f f i c i e n c y w i t h w h i c h t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t was c o n d u c t e d can be i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s h o r t t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s c i e n t i s t s of t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n t o s e l e c t , p r e p a r e , s t u d y , and f i n a l l y p r o d u c e o n a s m a l l s c a l e , t h e t h r e e c h e m i c a l a g e n t s w h i c h were o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f America's chemical warfare research. L e w i s i t e was t h e b e s t known o f t h e war g a s e s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n . A l t h o u g h i t was n o t u s e d o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d , i t became t h e s u b j e c t o f many s e n s a t i o n a l r e p o r t s a f t e r t h e war. L e w i s i t e was named f o r W i n f o r d L e e L e w i s , a c h e m i s t a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , who f i r s t i s o l a t e d i t a n d s t u d i e d i t s properties as a vesicant. I n J a n u a r y , 1918, a n a d d i t i o n a l b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r y o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d a t C a t h o l i c u n i v e r s i t y , a n d i t was h e r e t h a t L e w i s d i d h i s w o r k a s l e a d e r o f " o r g a n i c u n i t n o . 3." T h e r e was g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n a r s e n i c compounds f o l l o w i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c h l o r o d i p h e n y l a r s i n e , " s n e e z e g a s , " b y t h e German army. I n a s u r v e y o f t h e c h e m i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , Lewis read o f an a r s e n i c a l produced from t h e r e a c t i o n o f a r s e n i c t r i c h l o r i d e and a c e t y l e n e . He f o u n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t h a t one o f t h e s e v e r a l p r o d u c t s o f t h i s r e a c t i o n had e x c e l l e n t p r o p e r t i e s f o r u s e as a war gas. D u r i n g t h e summer o f 1918, L e w i s ' s u n i t a n d Conant's u n i t s o u g h t methods f o r t h e e f f i c i e n t s y n t h e s i s o f t h i s new a g e n t . F o u r months a f t e r t h i s p r o j e c t b e g a n , a p l a n t f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f L e w i s i t e a c c o r d i n g t o a method w o r k e d o u t b y Conant a n d L e w i s was u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a n example o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h i t i s u s e f u l t o e x a m i n e i n more d e t a i l t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e w o r k o f t h e two u n i t s o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n a n d o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e Research D i v i s i o n on the v a r i o u s p r o j e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e development o f L e w i s i t e . On A p r i l 1 3 , 1918 L e w i s r e a d i n a n u n p u b l i s h e d d i s s e r t a t i o n c o m p l e t e d i n 1904 a t C a t h o l i c u n i v e r s i t y by J u l i u s A r t h u r N i e u w l a n d o f a p o i s o n o u s , gummy mass p r o d u c e d i n the r e a c t i o n o f a c e t y l e n e and a r s e n i c t r i c h l o r i d e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f aluminum t r i c h l o r i d e . S i x o f t h e 12 t o 14 members o f o r g a n i c u n i t n o . 3 a t t h i s t i m e were a s s i g n e d b y L e w i s t o t h e s t u d y o f t h i s r e a c t i o n . W i t h i n two weeks t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e gummy mass c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e compounds. Samples were i s o l a t e d o f e a c h , t h e y were p u r i f i e d , a n d s e n t t o t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n f o r testing. Meanwhile t h e chemists determined t h e c h e m i c a l i d e n t i t y of t h e three substances. I t was r e p o r t e d b y t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n t h a t a l l t h r e e were v e s i c a n t s and p o i s o n s b u t n o t t o a n e q u a l d e g r e e . B e c a u s e o f t h e p o t e n t c y o f one o f t h e t h r e e , d i c h l o r o ( 2 - c h l o r o v i n y l ) a r s i n e , James F. N o r r i s , t h e n head o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n , i n c r e a s e d t h e s i z e o f o r g a n i c u n i t n o . 3 t o 35 b y



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the a s s i g n m e n t o f a d d i t i o n a l s o l d i e r - c h e m i s t s t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y a t C a t h o l i c U n i v e r s i t y . The e n t i r e team c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r e f f o r t s on i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f what came t o be c a l l e d L e w i s i t e t h a t was p r o d u c e d i n t h e r e a c t i o n , p r e p a r i n g v a r i o u s d e r i v a t i v e s of t h i s compound, and s u b s t i t u t i n g r e l a t e d a c e t y l e n e s i n t h e r e action. Soon, N o r r i s c a l l e d upon C o n a n t ' s u n i t a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y to s c a l e up t h e s y n t h e t i c p r o c e s s . F i n a l l y t h i s t a s k was t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e Development D i v i s i o n w h i c h c o n s t r u c t e d a manuf a c t u r i n g plant at Cleveland. The f i r s t s h i p m e n t o f L e w i s i t e was e n r o u t e t o E u r o p e when t h e A r m i s t i c e was s i g n e d , and t h e d a n g e r o u s c a r g o was dumped a t sea Ç26, 32, 3 6 ) . A d a m s i t e , 1 0 - c h l o r o - 5 , 1 0 - d i h y d r o p h e n a r s a z i n e , was named f o r Roger Adams, a c h e m i s t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , who during the war was i n c h a r g e o f o r g a n i c u n i t no. 2 a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y . On M a r c h 1, 1918, t h i s u n i t was formed and g i v e n t h e p r o j e c t o f d e v e l o p i n g an e f f i c i e n t s y n t h e s i s f o r c h l o r o d i p h e n y l a r s i n e , s i n c e a t t h a t t i m e t h e method u s e d by t h e Germans was unknown t o t h e Allies. At a c o n f e r e n c e on A p r i l 18, D a v i d W o r r a l , f o r m e r l y a c h e m i s t a t S m i t h C o l l e g e , s u g g e s t e d t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a compound w i t h a s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r e , 10-chloro-5,10-dihydrophenarsazine, the s y n t h e s i s o f w h i c h seemed much s i m p l e r (32) . The c h e m i s t s u n d e r Adams p r e p a r e d t h i s s u b s t a n c e , and i t was f o u n d t h a t i t a l s o was an e f f e c t i v e " s n e e z e g a s " when d i s p e r s e d as a smoke f r o m f l a r e s (37). T h i s smoke c o u l d p e n e t r a t e gas masks, f o r c e t h e w e a r e r t o remove the mask b e c a u s e o f t h e v i o l e n t s n e e z i n g i t c a u s e d , and t h u s e x p o s e t h e s o l d i e r t o a l e t h a l gas p r e s e n t on t h e b a t t l e field. As i n the c a s e o f L e w i s i t e h o w e v e r , A d a m s i t e was n o t p r o d u c e d i n t i m e t o be u s e d d u r i n g W o r l d War I . C h l o r o a c e t o p h e n o n e was among t h e many s a m p l e s o f p o s s i b l e war g a s e s p r e p a r e d by E. Emmet R e i d and s e n t t o t h e B u r e a u o f M i n e s i n 1917. B e c a u s e t h e r e were no t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r l a c h r y m a t o r s u n t i l the c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y was c o m p l e t e d , t h e v a l u e o f t h i s compound as a t e a r gas went u n n o t i c e d . I t was J a n u a r y , 1918, b e f o r e t h e r e s u l t s o f the p h y s i o l o g i c a l t e s t s were r e p o r t e d w h i c h showed c h l o r o a c e t o p h e n o n e t o be s u p e r i o r t o any o t h e r t e a r gas i n use a t t h e t i m e ( 2 3 ) . The J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r y , i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h a u n i t at American U n i v e r s i t y then d e v e l o p e d a method o f s y n t h e s i s . A l t h o u g h c h l o r o a c e t o p h e n o n e was n o t p r o d u c e d i n q u a n t i t y b e f o r e t h e war ended, i t became t h e s t a n d a r d t e a r gas u s e d by c i v i l i a n p o l i c e a f t e r t h e war ( 3 8 ) . Transfer

of P r o j e c t - R e s e a r c h

to Peacetime

The e x p e r i e n c e o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h was s h a r e d by n e a r l y 2000 members o f t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e . Some o f t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l c h e m i s t s o f t h e c o u n t r y , i n a d d i t i o n t o p h a r m a c o l o g i s t s and p h y s i o l o g i s t s , were among t h i s g r o u p , and a f t e r t h e war t h e y r a p i d l y r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r f o r m e r p o s i t i o n s i n g o v e r n m e n t , i n d u s t r y , and h i g h e r e d u c a tion. They had l e a r n e d t h e v a l u e o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h i n p r o m o t i n g



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t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f s c i e n t i s t s i n d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s and w o r k i n g i n l a b o r a t o r i e s s e p a r a t e d b y some d i s t a n c e . Those who p r e v i o u s l y s p e c i a l i z e d i n o r g a n i c , p h y s i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l , o r a n a l y t i c a l chemi s t r y were u n i t e d i n t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n i n t h e i r work o n a s p e c t s o f a s i n g l e p r o b l e m . C o n s e q u e n t l y , e a c h a p p r e c i a t e d more f u l l y t h e advantages o f working c l o s e l y w i t h t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s . From t h e r e p o r t s i s s u e d b y t h e e d i t o r i a l s e c t i o n many o f t h e chemi s t s came t o a p p r e c i a t e o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n w h i c h t h e y were n o t d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d , a n d t h e y were e n a b l e d t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i n t e n s e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t t h a t was made on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e b y s c i e n t i s t s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . A s t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s and methods o f t h e i r w a r t i m e work became known t h r o u g h t h e i r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t s and p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s , t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n became known t o a n even l a r g e r number o f s c i e n t i s t s a s a m o d e l o f p r o j e c t research. The A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y t o o k p r i d e i n t h e r o l e i t h a d p l a y e d i n t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f c h e m i s t s f o r r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e and i t was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r work. A s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s a p p e a r e d i n t h e w i d e l y r e a d J o u r n a l o f I n d u s t r i a l and E n g i n e e r i n g C h e m i s t r y d e s i g n a t e d as " C o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e , " summarizing t h e techniques and f i n d i n g s u s e f u l t o t h e w i d e r s t u d y o f c h e m i s t r y ( 3 9 ) . When t h e War Department a t t e m p t e d t o a b o l i s h t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e i n 1919, t h e ACS c o o p e r a t e d i n a campaign o f p u b l i c i t y a b o u t t h e work o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e and c o n t r i b u t e d i n a m a j o r way t o i t s s u r v i v a l ( 4 0 ) . Many c h e m i s t s who f o r m e r l y had w o r k e d i n t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n d e l i v e r e d p u b l i c a d d r e s s e s and w r o t e l e t t e r s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e t o n e w s p a p e r s and t o members o f Congress. The p a t t e r n o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h was t h u s i m p r e s s e d on t h e consciousness o f t h e chemical p r o f e s s i o n ; i t appeared t o be c a p a b l e o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y and e f f i c i e n c y o f s c i e n c e . The p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e p a t t e r n was e v i d e n t i n t h e p o l i c i e s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , e s p e c i a l l y i n i t s d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y . I n 1919 t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f the e f f o r t s o f chemists i n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y on p r o b l e m s s e l e c t e d b y t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h i s d i v i s i o n was r e g a r d e d a s a s i m i l a r t a s k t o t h a t d e a l t w i t h i n wartime by p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h . Even b e f o r e t h e war e n d e d , t h e t y p e o f r e s e a r c h i n a u g u r a t e d i n Manning's c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s g a s e s began t o b e u s e d i n o t h e r programs o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h Council. J o h n J o h n s t o n was s e l e c t e d t o become c h a i r m a n o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1918. P r i o r t o t h i s , a s a member o f Manning's c o m m i t t e e h e had been i n c h a r g e o f t h e o f f e n s e s e c t i o n a t A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y ( 2 8 ) . I n h i s new p o s t a s h e a d o f t h e c h e m i s t r y d i v i s i o n J o h n s t o n emp l o y e d t h e same p a t t e r n o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h i n o r d e r t o e f f e c t c o l l a b o r a t i o n of the n a t i o n ' s chemists w i t h governmental l a b o ratories. I n 1918 h e a s s i g n e d a b o u t 50 s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s t o



9. J O N E S


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c h e m i s t s i n i n d u s t r y and e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s u p p l y o f e s s e n t i a l c h e m i c a l s f o r t h e war (41) . I n 1919, a s t h e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l were r e o r g a n i z e d on a permanent b a s i s , J o h n s t o n was s u c c e e d e d a s c h a i r m a n b y W i l d e r D. B a n c r o f t , a p h y s i c a l chemist a t C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y . During the war B a n c r o f t h a d headed t h e e d i t o r i a l s e c t i o n o f t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e , and had c o o r d i n a t e d t h e w o r k o f v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h teams t h r o u g h h i s p r o g r e s s r e p o r t s . B a n c r o f t knew more t h a n anyone a b o u t t h e p a t t e r n o f p r o j e c t r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e , and i n 1919 he p r o d u c e d t h e most comprehensive r e p o r t o f t h e e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n ( 2 8 ) . Under t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f J o h n s t o n and B a n c r o f t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t two y e a r s o f i t s o p e r a t i o n i n p e a c e t i m e , t h e p o l i c y o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l became: " ( 1 ) t o f o r m u l a t e s p e c i a l r e s e a r c h problems f o r i n d i v i d u a l s ; (2) t o f o r m u l a t e g e n e r a l problems o f f u n d a m e n t a l i m p o r t a n c e i n v o l v i n g c o o p e r a t i v e work; ( 3 ) t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r men i n d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s o f c h e m i s t r y o r men i n d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s o f s c i e n c e , e a c h o f whom i s f a m i l i a r w i t h a g i v e n s u b j e c t from a p o i n t o f v i e w not h e l d by t h e o t h e r s " ( 4 2 ) . A t t h e d i v i s i o n ' s a n n u a l m e e t i n g , h e l d i n M a r c h 1919, a r e s o l u t i o n was p a s s e d " t h a t i t s h a l l be t h e p o l i c y o f t h e d i v i s i o n t o f o r m committees o n l y f o r the purpose o f u n d e r t a k i n g d e f i n i t e p r o j e c t s " (43). E a c h c o m m i t t e e was t o a s s e m b l e a l i s t o f i m p o r t a n t p r o j e c t s w h i c h c o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n i n u n i v e r s i t y l a b o r a t o r i e s , t o a s c e r t a i n f o r e a c h p r o j e c t an i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h was a b l e a n d w i l l i n g t o c o n d u c t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , and t o s e e k f u n d s f r o m c h e m i c a l i n d u s t r i e s t o support the i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . At t h e i r next meeting t h e e x e c u t i v e c o m m i t t e e a p p r o v e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o be s e n t t o a l l c h e m i s t s o f t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s on w h i c h t h e y c o u l d i n d i c a t e t h e i r d e s i r e t o be i n f o r m e d o f p r o j e c t s o f t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h Council w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c f i e l d of chemistry (44). I t was B a n c r o f t ' s o p i n i o n t h a t t o j u s t i f y i t s e x i s t e n c e , t h e d i v i s i o n must p r o d u c e r e s u l t s w h i c h c o u l d n o t be o b t a i n e d o t h e r w i s e , a n d t h a t t h e b e s t way t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s was t o s e l e c t p r o j e c t s on t h e " b o r d e r l a n d s " b e t w e e n c h e m i s t r y a n d one o r more o f t h e o t h e r s c i e n c e s (45) . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s p o l i c y t h e m a j o r i t y o f c o m m i t t e e s o r g a n i z e d i n t h e 1920s c o n c e r n e d t h e s e borderlands. One o f t h e f i r s t t o be f o r m e d was t h e c o m m i t t e e on t h e c h e m i s t r y o f c o l l o i d s , and i n 1921 B a n c r o f t p u b l i s h e d a l i s t o f 200 r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s i n c o l l o i d c h e m i s t r y f o r w h i c h v o l u n t e e r s were s o u g h t by t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l ( 4 6 ) . T h i s c o m m i t t e e p u b l i s h e d numerous monographs a n d a r r a n g e d s y m p o s i a on c o l l o i d c h e m i s t r y , a n d was t h e r e f o r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an a r e a o f r e s e a r c h w i t h i n p h y s i c a l c h e m i s t r y w i t h l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l importance. In t h e s e l e c t i o n o f p r o j e c t s f o r 1923 e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d on o b t a i n i n g s u g g e s t i o n s from c h e m i c a l companies f o r p r o j e c t s which were o f f u n d a m e n t a l s c i e n t i f i c i m p o r t a n c e a n d w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be of i n t e r e s t t o academic c h e m i s t s . As chairman o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f



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c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y i n 1923, J . E. Z a n e t t i c o n s u l t e d i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i s t s and p u b l i s h e d a l i s t of 100 s e l e c t e d r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s ( 4 7 ) . As chairman, Z a n e t t i maintained a correspondence f i l e and a m a s t e r l i s t o f p r o b l e m s o n w h i c h h e n o t e d who had a c c e p t e d t h e a s s i g n m e n t o f a p r o b l e m (48) . Z a n e t t i a l s o had been f a m i l i a r w i t h p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h i n the Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e , f o r as a l i a i s o n o f f i c e r d u r i n g t h e war h e was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n and F r e n c h r e s e a r c h o n c h e m i c a l w a r fare. T h i s procedure of o b t a i n i n g problems f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n from i n d u s t r y and m a t c h i n g them t o v o l u n t e e r s i n c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s was c o n t i n u e d b y t h e n e x t c h a i r m a n , James F. N o r r i s , who a l s o had s e r v e d i n t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e Service. I n h i s f i n a l r e p o r t as c h a i r m a n , i s s u e d A p r i l 15, 1925, N o r r i s d e s c r i b e d a new l i s t o f p r o b l e m s t h a t was b e i n g c o m p i l e d as a r e s u l t o f h i s r e c e n t v i s i t s t o i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r i e s ( 4 9 ) . The n e x t c h a i r m a n , W i l l i a m J . H a l e , t h e d i r e c t o r o f o r g a n i c c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h a t Dow C h e m i c a l Company, f o u n d t h e s y s t e m o f a s s i g n i n g p r o b l e m s t o a c a d e m i c c h e m i s t s u n w o r k a b l e due to t h e i r l a c k o f f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e methods o f i n d u s t r i a l r e s e a r c h , and h e d r o p p e d t h i s p r o g r a m i n 1925 ( 5 0 ) . W i t h i n s e v e r a l c o m m i t t e e s o f t h e d i v i s i o n t h e method o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h c o n tinued. I n p a r t i c u l a r t h i s method was u s e d w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s for the c o m p i l a t i o n of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C r i t i c a l Tables o f P h y s i c a l and C h e m i c a l C o n s t a n t s (51) . The u s e o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l a r g e number o f f o r m e r c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e r e s e a r c h e r s who were a c t i v e i n t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y and c h e m i c a l t e c h n o l o g y . During the p e r i o d f r o m 1918 t o 1929, o f t h e n i n e men who s e r v e d as c h a i r m e n , s i x had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r e s e a r c h o n c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e d u r i n g t h e war ( J o h n J o h n s t o n , W i l d e r D. B a n c r o f t , J . E. Z a n e t t i , James F. N o r r i s , W i l l i a m J . H a l e and George H u l e t t ) , a s had 20 o f t h e 64 members of the d i v i s i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . The way i n w h i c h t h e p a t t e r n o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h was c a r r i e d f o r w a r d b y t h e c o m m i t t e e s o f t h e d i v i s i o n can b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e w o r k o f one o f t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e s e , t h e c o m m i t t e e on c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h on m e d i c i n a l s u b s t a n c e s . T h i s c o m m i t t e e was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1923 and was c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 1926 w i t h M a r s t o n T. B o g e r t a s c h a i r m a n . A s one o f t h e o r i g i n a l members o f M a n n i n g ' s c o m m i t t e e on n o x i o u s g a s e s , i t was B o g e r t who i n 1917 s u g g e s t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of b r a n c h l a b o r a t o r i e s to c a r r y out p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h a t c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s . He s u b s e q u e n t l y s e r v e d as c h i e f o f t h e r e l a t i o n s s e c t i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e , and i n t h a t r o l e h e f a c i l i t a t e d c o o p e r a t i o n between t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e and c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s ( 2 8 ) . The c o m m i t t e e on c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h on m e d i c i n a l s u b s t a n c e s was composed o f 14 members who c o o r d i n a t e d t h e w o r k o f a n a d d i t i o n a l 57 c o l l a b o r a t o r s a t t a c h e d t o 12 s u b c o m m i t t e e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e o f compounds studied. F i v e o f t h e s e 14 members ( M a r s t o n T. B o g e r t , Roger Adams, T r e a t B. J o h n s o n , W. Lee L e w i s , and R. R. Renshaw) had



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p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e d u r i n g t h e war. The e x t e n s i v e work o f t h i s c o m m i t t e e r e s u l t e d i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f 144 s e p a r a t e p a p e r s on t h e s y n t h e s i s and t e s t i n g o f compounds f o r possible medicinal value (52). The s u b c o m m i t t e e on o r g a n i c a r s e n i c a l s i n c l u d e d W. L e e L e w i s , who h a d d e v e l o p e d L e w i s i t e and was t h e n an o r g a n i c c h e m i s t a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , a n d A r t h u r S. L o e v e n h a r t , a p h a r m a c o l o g i s t a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin. L o e v e n h a r t h a d been c h i e f of p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h a t t h e c e n t r a l l a b o r a t o r y o f t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e a t American U n i v e r s i t y . Loevenhart had been i m p r e s s e d by t h e c o o p e r a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d between o r g a n i c c h e m i s t s a n d p h a r m a c o l o g i s t s i n t h e s e a r c h f o r new a g e n t s o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e , and a f t e r t h e war he p r o p o s e d t o c o n t i n u e t h i s c o o p e r a t i o n i n a s e a r c h f o r new d r u g s ( 5 3 ) . I n 1918 L o e v e n h a r t and L e w i s c o l l a b o r a t e d on a p r o j e c t t o s y n t h e s i z e a n d t e s t t h e medicinal value of organic arsenicals. T h e i r work was s u p p o r t e d i n i t i a l l y by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s I n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l S o c i a l H y g i e n e B o a r d and l a t e r b y t h e P u b l i c H e a l t h I n s t i t u t e o f C h i c a g o ( 5 4 ) . T h e i r p r o j e c t was one o f many s i m i l a r s t u d i e s w h i c h were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e work o f t h e s u b c o m m i t t e e on o r g a n i c a r s e n i c a l s i n 1923. A r e p o r t i s s u e d by t h e s u b c o m m i t t e e i n 1925 c o n t a i n e d a l i s t o f r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s and an i n v i t a t i o n f o r c h e m i s t s and p h a r m a c o l o g i s t s t o v o l u n t e e r t o s t u d y them ( 5 5 ) . The i d e a t h a t p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h was w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e s t u d y o f d r u g s a l s o was p r e s e n t i n t h e i n i t i a l p r o p o s a l i n 1918 f o r t h e establishment of the National I n s t i t u t e of Health. C h a r l e s Holmes H e r t y s e d i t o r i a l i n t h e J o u r n a l o f I n d u s t r i a l and E n g i n e e r i n g C h e m i s t r y e n t i t l e d "War C h e m i s t r y a n d t h e A l l e v i a t i o n o f S u f f e r ing," p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e methods i n v o l v e d i n s u c h s t u d i e s w e r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h those used p r e v i o u s l y by t h e Research D i v i s i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e (.56) . (For Herty's r o l e i n establ i s h i n g an i n s t i t u t e f o r d r u g r e s e a r c h s e e J o h n P a r a s c a n d o l a s c h a p t e r i n t h i s volume.) A c o m m i t t e e o f t h e A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y p r e p a r e d a s t a t e m e n t i n 1921 o f t h e i r p l a n s a n d p o l i c i e s for a chemical-medical i n s t i t u t e . F o u r o f t h e n i n e members o f t h e c o m m i t t e e (Raymond F. B a c o n , R e i d H u n t , T r e a t B. J o h n s o n , a n d J u l i u s S t i e g l i t z ) h a d been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e C h e m i c a l W a r f a r e S e r v i c e . T h e i r r e p o r t commented on t h e p a t t e r n o f s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h employed i n t h e r e s e a r c h on war g a s e s a n d recommended a s i m i l a r o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t d i s e a s e . The r e p o r t c o n c l u d e d w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t : C o n s e q u e n t l y i t i s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e a t t a c k be a c t u a l l y c o o p e r a t i v e , from t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e problem and t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e p l a n o f work through t h e whole concentrated e f f o r t t o grapple w i t h N a t u r e and u l t i m a t e l y t o conquer o u t p o s t a f t e r o u t p o s t o f t h e complex w o r l d o f l i f e . May t h e d a y come when t h e l e s s o n o f t h e power o f c o o p e r a t i v e s c i e n t i f i c endeavor, so e f f e c t i v e l y u t i l i z e d i n t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n , may be a p p l i e d w i t h e q u a l s u c c e s s t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e problems o f d i s e a s e and h e a l t h ( 5 8 ) . 1

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Conclusion P r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h p r o v e d t o be a n e f f e c t i v e method o f o r g a n i z i n g r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e d u r i n g W o r l d War I . I t s o l v e d a problem encountered e a r l y i n the United S t a t e s p r e p a r a t i o n f o r c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e , t h a t o f e f f i c i e n t l y c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e work o f v o l u n t e e r c h e m i s t s who were i s o l a t e d i n s e p a r a t e l a b o r a t o r i e s . L a t e r i n t h e war i t was c o n t i n u e d more b e c a u s e i t e n a b l e d t h e examination o f t h e c h e m i c a l , p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l , and t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f one p r o b l e m t o p r o c e e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n s e v e r a l r e search u n i t s . I n t h i s way r e s u l t s were e x p e c t e d t o be o b t a i n e d i n the s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e time. I t i s suggested here that t h i s experience l e f t i t s i m p r i n t n o t o n l y o n t h e c h e m i s t s and o t h e r s c i e n t i s t s i n v o l v e d , b u t a l s o on t h e i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t t h e y shaped t o o r g a n i z e c h e m i c a l r e s e a r c h a f t e r t h e war. When t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e d i v i s i o n o f c h e m i s t r y a n d chemical technology o f t h e N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l faced i d e n t i c a l p r o b l e m s i n t h e 1920s, t h e y may w e l l have t u r n e d t o s o l u t i o n s t h e y had f o u n d t o be s u c c e s s f u l d u r i n g W o r l d War I , y e t e v i d e n c e g i v e n h e r e f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e model o f p r o j e c t research i slargely circumstantial. Many o f t h e l e a d e r s o f A m e r i c a n C h e m i s t r y i n t h e 1920s s h a r e d t h e common e x p e r i e n c e o f r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e , and t h e i r methods o f o r g a n i z i n g v o l u n t a r y work on r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s i n c h e m i s t r y m i r r o r e d t h e wartime o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e Chemical Warfare S e r v i c e . Only b i o g r a p h i c a l s t u d i e s o f these i n d i v i d u a l chemists can i l l u m i n a t e t h e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o f t h e model o f p r o j e c t - r e s e a r c h on t h e i r l a t e r c a r e e r s . I n t h i s way t h e i m p a c t o f t h e model on p o s t w a r c h e m i s t r y m i g h t b e b e t t e r e s t a b l i s h e d , and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r e s e a r c h on c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h e m i s t r y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m i g h t be d e m o n s t r a t e d c o n c l u s i v e l y .

Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Yerkes, Robert M., ed.; "The New World of Science: Its Development During the War"; Century: New York, 1920; Chapters 2, 3, 24. Millikan, Robert A. Science 1919, 50, 285-297. Kevles, Daniel J . ISIS 1968, 59, 427-437. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1919, 5, 188. Jones, Daniel P., Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1969. Baker, Newton D. J . Ind. Eng. Chem. 1919, 11, 921. Jones, Daniel P. ISIS 1980, 71, 426-440. Dupree, A. Hunter. "Science in the Federal Government"; Harvard Univ.: Cambridge, Mass., 1957; pp. 158-163. Armsby, Henry Prentiss. Science 1920, 51, 37.



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