international chemical education, 7
Chemical Education in Australia M. J. Nolan School of Science and Engineering, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Box 199, Bendigo 3550, Australia
Chemical Education in Schools This article will consider some aspects of chemical education in Australia and the context in which this occurs. The situation in pre-college schools is considered briefly followed by a more detailed look at the situation in the higher education sector (1,2). In Australia, elementary and secondary school level education is the responsibility of the six states and two territories. Each has its own system of education and within each system education is provided in government schools or independent schools. The latter schools educate approximately 25% of the population. There are generally 12 grades, and the upper five or six of these comprise the secondary school system. Although science studies form part of the curriculum in grades 7-10, it is only in grades 11and 12 that there are discipline-specific subjects such as chemistry in the curriculum. Until the late 1970's the portion of the secondary school population that remained at school to complete grades 11and 12 was quite small-about 30%.The curriculum at this level was determined by various boards established in each state, and mostly dominated by university academics. It was seen largely as a preparation for higher education in universities and other institutions. In this situation the curriculum in each suhject was specified, frequently in fine detail, and it was only a matter of consulting the handbook relevant to each state to determine its exact nature. Further control over the curriculum was achieved by the assessment system of centralized examinations that were external to the schools themselves. Following the economic downturn of the late 1970's a larger portion of students remained at school to complete grade 12. The period also was characterized by the introduction of social policies at state and national level to encourage more students to stay in school, and to increase the participation rate of females. The result was that by the early 1990's about 75% of students were completing secondary school. These changes had a profound influence on the system controllingthe curriculum in each state. The influence of university academics was markedly reduced while that of school and community groups was increased. In many states there were several major structural changes in controlling bodies in this period. While the nature of the chemistry cumculum varies between the states, it is now commonly approached from a contextual viewpoint. In addition the curriculum is seen not as a course description but as a study design that provides a set of specifications for the development of courses by schools. The approach may be illustrated by the system now in operation in the state of Victoria where there are four units of chemistry that constitute the subject in grades 11and 12. Each unit is divided into areas of study, certain focal questions and work requirements, and general guidance is provided in the interpretation of these by the schools. Assessment and reporting procedures for grades 11and 12 have been very controversial issues educationally and politically. The systems vary widely between the states
from those that are internal to the schools to those that also include external examinations. Many are extremely complex in nature. Higher Education in Australia In Australia, the term "higher education" refers to education offered to at least first-degree level. In the period from the mid 1960's to the late 1980's there was, throughout Australia, a binary system of higher education involving the university sector and the advanced education sector. The former sector was intended to provide a system for scholarship and research while the latter was to concentrate on the provision of vocationally oriented education. By the mid 1970's there were 19 universities and over 100 institutions-known as institutes of technology or colleges of advanced education-in the advanced education sector. At this time, the Commonwealth (National) Government assumed responsibility from the states for funding higher education. As time passed the distinction between the two sectors became blurred. When this was coupled with the rapidly changing economic and social circumstances in the 1980's, the Commonwealth decided to abolish the binary system and to replace it in 1988 by a system to be called the Unified National System. The Unified National System In Australia, there are currently 36 publicly funded institutions called universities that comprise the Unified National System. These are distributed among the states and territories as follows-New South Wales (101, Victoria (81, Queensland (6),South Australia (31,Western Australia (41, Tasmania (11, Northern Territory (11, Australian Capital Territory (Wand one university operates across several states. There are also two privately funded universities. In Australia, the title "universitv" bv law - is ~rotected . and these institutions are the only ones authorized to use this title and to award demees. Many of these universities are the result of amalgam&ions of former colleges or institutes, either among themselves or with former universities. kequently they have campuses in several locations. They have student enrollments that vary from about 4,000 to 30,000, the total national enrollment being 560,000 in 1992. While they are accountable in various ways to both Commonwealth and State Governments, they are autonomous institutions in their operation. However, about 70% of their operating costs are obtained from government grants. Undergraduate Chemistry Programs Virtually all the universities provide education in chemistry. This ranges from individual subjects that provide support for studies in another discipline to major programs of study in chemistry. This article considers the latter type. Because some universities operate on several campuses there are about 45 locations where a chemistry program mav be undertaken. Tke initlal program of studies normally is undertaken as Dart of a Rachelor of Science (or Amlied Science, demee. Hlthough Bachelor degrees in chemical engineerinLand Volume 72 Number 1 Janualy 1995
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agriculture also involve substantial studies in chemistry. The degree requires three years of full-time study, or four years for an honors degree. Some universities specifically provide for part-time study by day or evening over a longer period. There are a few universities that provide co-operative education programs involving industrial employment interspersed in the program for six months or more. In addition. there are two universities that provide distance (i.e., ekternal or correspondence) education programs for students anywhere in Australia, or sometimes overseas, who are unable to attend classes. The academic vear runs from March to October and in most univerliitiesis now divided into two semesters each of length 13-14 teaching weeks. Entry to demee pnmams is through a centralized-admission system iLeach~&ralian state that coordinates offers of places to each university in that state. All universities in the Unified National System have a quota of government-fundedplaces in various fields of studv. Students contribute a uortion of the total cost of a either as a direct pay;nent (about $2,500 per annum in 1994)or by deferred taxation payment after graduation. At present these universities cannot offer places ex ouota to Australian residents willine to Dav the full cost of any undergraduate program, althouih tkei can offerthese to overseas residents. Entry to a Bachelor degree program in science normally assumes familiarity with basic concepts in mathematics and several science subjects. These generally are provided by courses in grades 11and 12 at high schools or in bridging programs that are provided in some universities. While the precise structure of a degree program with major studies in chemistry varies with the university, there are many similarities. The first year normally involves chemistry and two other science subjects plus mathematics. In the second year the range of s"bjects undertaken narrows to chemistry and one or two others, and this continues in the third year where chemistry may he studied exclusively, leading to a "double major" or in combination with some other science subject. There is often provision for a certain portion of the whole three-year program to include some nonscience subjects. When a fourth year, or honors program is undertaken, specialization in a particular area of chemistry, e.g., organic chemistry is normal. A full-time program generally involves 20-24 hoursfweek of formal class contact time. When the terms "science" and "applied science" are used in the context of a Bachelor deeree thev usuallv indicate that the program originated in tEe b i n a j s y s t e i of higher education. Applied science is intended to signify that there is special regard to the application of scientific or chemical orincinles. Also. there is usuallv a heavier emphasis on iaboritory work: The proportion of all students undertaking.Bachelor degrees in science or applied science who specialize in chemistry is relatively small, being in the range 10-15%.
Post-Graduate Chemistry Programs These uroerams include Graduate diulomas. Master degree, a n i ~ i c t o r a degrees. l Graduate ;liplomHs normally involve a specialized Droeram of course-work in a ~ a r t i c u lar field, Lg., colloid'ch~mistry and tend to be t h e n by chemistrv eraduates alreadv workine in that field. Thev are equi;aient to a ~ n e - ~ e program ar of full-time stud; and sometimes form the first stage - of a Master degree - bv coursework. The degree of Master of Science, Applied Science, or Chemistry can be by coursework or entirely by research or some combination of the two. The length of the program varies with the background of the individual, hut frequently, it is about two years. The Doctoral degree, in particnlar the PhD, involves a supervised program of individual research on a topic with the aim of making an original contribution to knowledge. A research-based Master deeree or a Bachelor deeree with honors is required for entry. There is normally no coursework required. Award of the deeree is based on an examination or a thesis based on the research. There are generally three examiners, at least two of whom are external to that university with one often being from a British or American university. Australian PhD theses frequently contain more experimental work than those from other countries. Because the PhD degree is of recent origin in Australian universities-the first was awarded in 7950there has been a tendency to try to impress scientists from other countries with longer traditions-of post-graduate research. The average time required to complete a PhD is about four vears of full-time work. At nresent about 120 PhD's in cLemistry are awarded annually. There is little tradition in Australia of eraduates movine to another university to undertake posEgraduate researih.
The Chemistry Curriculum Although each university desiens its own curriculum there are'kany common ch&acterktics. At undergraduate level these variations reflect historical and philosophical aspects of the curriculum in the former binary system. For example, there may be an emphasis on analytical and applied aspects of chemistry in some programs. Most of the pre-1988 universities gave little recognition of these aspects as a distinct area of study, and also they did not give as much attention to laboratory work. There are several universities in which industrial employment, sometimes in overseas countries, is incorporated into the curriculum. The curriculum at first-year level, while it may be organized in a variety of ways, normally involves study of topics
Teaching and Research Staff in Chemistry In the former binam svstem of hieher education. academic staff in univerktces were expected to undertake teaching and research while those in the colleees and institutes were expected to concentrate on teach& With the introduction of the new system, there is some uncertainty a t present as to whether all academic staff in all universities will be able to have significant involvement in both teaching and research. There are about 650 chemistry academic staff in Australian universities most of whom hold continuing appointments. In terms of qualifications. these are eenerallv among the most quahied of all staff in the inkitution. Their classification tends to follow the British pattern of
46
Journal of Chemical Education
similar to those found for a first course in chemistry in manv American college texts. The urecise auuroach and levefof treatment var';es with the &itution: one area of substantial variation to the above occurs in the auuroach to organic chemistry. In Australia this normally i&lves a greater proportion of the curriculum, and the approach is more systematic and rigorous to that found in the texts referred to above. At the second- and third-year levels there is considerable variation between universities in terms of s~ecifictouics. However, there is generally an attempt to provide a'balance between the organic, inorganic, and physical aspects and analytical in the case of former advanced education sector institutions. Topics considered a t the third-year level are frequently related to research interests of the teaching staff. At the fourth-year or "honors" level the curriculum varies widely between universities, sometimes involving mainly research work on an individual basis or a mixture of course work on s~ecializedtonics in addition to research work.
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lecturer, senior lecturer, reader, and professor as distinct from the American pattern of various types of professor. Although employed by the individual universities, there are certain aspects of their conditions that are now governed by a national industrial award, prescribing among other thines. the salaries navable for each classification. There is, t K s , generally no monetary advantage in movement of staff between universities. Indeed, the pattern of growth in higher education has resulted in an aging staff with 40% of all chemistry staff being over 50 years of age. In addition to these staff there also are considerable numbers of junior staff appointed for fixed periods of time, as well as sessional staff of graduates undertaking higher degrees in chemistry Continuing Education in Chemistry While universities provide various types of formal and informal programs of continuing education, there is extensive commitment to this activity by the Royal Australian Chemical Institute. This functions both as a qualifying bodv for ~rofessionalchemists and also as a learned society somekhat similar to the American Chemical Society. Thus, it accredits chemistry programs in the universities and provides an extensive program of conferences a t local, state, and national level in most fields of chemistry. In 1996 the 14th International Conference on Chemical Education will be held a t the University of Queensland. Graduates In Chemistry In the period 1970-1985, the number of chemistry eradnates from all higher education institutions in Austraka was relatively constant a t about 900 per annum. Since that time there has been a steady increase to the present level of about 1200 per annum. The destination of these graduates has varied significantly with time and also between different institutions. In prosperous economic
times, over half have entered chemical industry in a broad sense with smaller numbers going to governmental organizations and high school teacher preparation programs. At present there are decreased opportunities owing to economic downturn. In 1991, approximately 28% of threeyear graduates continued into fourth-year programs in chemistry. Influences on the System The Commonwealth Government has a dominant role in higher education in Australia through its involvement in providing most of the funding. It negotiates an institutional profile with each university and this determines the number of funded places in each field of study. It also provides much of the funding for research. Commonwealth policies also have been impacting strongly on areas such as access and equity, and in the management of institutions. The latter aspect is illustrated by enquiries into the efficiency and effectiveness of the system, the development of performance indicators and requirements for quality assurance measures in the system. Changed circumstances in high schools also have impacted greatly on universities. The doubling of the retention rate of students in high schools in Australia in the period 1980-1990 brought increased demand for places in higher education and a much greater diversity in the academic preparation of these students. The curriculum in subjects such as chemistry in the first year of Bachelor degrees has required significant modification to adjust to these circumstances. Literature Cited 1. NalionalReporlonA~tml~SH~herEducafioi0Spcfor;DepamoentofEmployment. Ed"eati0" and lhining: Australian Government Publishing semce: Canberra, 1993. 2. Chemidry: A Vuion for Ausfroliq Nations1 Board of Employment, Education and Training: Australian Government Publishing Sellice: Canberra, 1993.
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