SCHOOLS WILLARD L. McRARY University of California, Santa Barbara College, Goleta, California
IN THE spring of 1956 the Office of Relations with Schools of the University of California undertook a survey of instructional practices in the teaching of college preparatory chemistry, physics, and biology in the high schools of California. The survey was conducted by means of questionnaires sent to all accredited high schools in the state, with information requested on teaching practices, physical status of laboratories, qualifications of the teaching staffs, post-highschool plans of science majors, and certain other related aspects of science instruction. The questionna.ires consisted of one page for each of the three subjects, and the persons in charge of the subjects were asked to fill out the sheets for their respective schools. The replies thus obtained were deemed of sufficient general interest and value to warrant presentation in a medium having more than regional coverage. This study was exploratory and did not intend to compare the findings with arbitrary standards. Rather, the results of the survey may be looked upon as establishing norms by which high schools in California may judge the adequacy of their own offerings. In addition, the data may prove of value in the general orientation of new instructors, and as factual information useful to teachers who are striving to upgrade the offerings of their schools. In this latter context the
"average" values quoted should be looked upon as just averages, and not as ultimate goals. Out of a total of 590 schools sent the questionnaire, 72% replied; of the schools replying, 94% offered chemistry and 76% offered physics. Since the replying schools were quite representative of the various classes of schools in the state, it is believed that the latter figures and other data obtained from the replies afford a fairly reliable statewide picture. I n compiling the data, the schools were classified as follows: large public high schools, L (over 500 students), medium public high schools, M (200500 students), small public high schools, S (up to 200 students), and private high schools, P. The data for this report (398 schools) were obtained from 173 large, 77 medium, and 47 small public high schools, and 101 private high schools, with chemistry enrollments totaling approximately 27,000. It is estimated that about 40,000 students took chemistry in all California high schools in 1955-56, judging from the data available through this unofficial tally. INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
It may he assumed that a regular semester consists of 18 weeks, with 90 periods available for courses meeting 1 period per day. Most California schools offering chemistry devote 5 periods per week to this subject, although
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
some schools schedule 6 or 7 (rarely 10) periods per week to it. Periods range from 40 to 55 minutes. The distribution of certain activities during a typical semester is shown in Tahle 1, with a breakdown given for the 4 classes of schools to bring out certain differences among them. Although it appears that with respect to some of these activities the private schools seem to complete more units than do the public schools, many private schools meet for 6 or 7 forty or forty-five minute periods per week instead of the more common 5 periods of 55 minutes each, and the total time devoted to the suhject by public and private schools does not differ greatly. In addition to lectures, recitations, and the activities of Table 1, many schools make use of films and other visual aids, assign special projects, and take field trips, hut practices differ widely. TABLE 1 Instructional Activities in a Typical Semester
Class of school
L
Activity
Periods of st,udent laboratory work 27 Periods of lahoratorv demonstration 12 Numher of experiments completed 23 Numher of mitten assignments 36 made Number of short quieaes given 14 Number of full ~ e r i o dexams given 10 average" values refer to true averagcs hased on the total replies, not "average of averages."
This allotment of time devoted to the various primary instructional activities appears reasonable, with the possible exception of the average of 30 periods of student laboratory work, which is only about onethird of the class time. Student laboratory work can contribute greatly to a true appreciation of the scientific method and can act as an effective stimulus to interest in science. Not less than 40% of the total time should be allotted to it, even if this necessitates fewer examinations and less extensive coverage of subject matter. Unfortunately some schools have been compelled to substitute demonstrations for individual student laboratory work. Inadequate facilities play a major role in the present situation. (See Tahle 4.) GRADING PRACTICES
4 study of the distribution of grades in chemistry among the four classes of schools reveals a high degree of uniformity for the average grade distribution groupwise, but wide variation among schools individually. The average grade distribution among the 398 schools reporting on their chemistry offerings is shown in Tahle 2. TABLE 2 Average Distribution of Grade.
Grade
A
B
C
D
F
11
27
40
17
5
Typical of the variability in grading practices may he cited the instance of one school giving 35y0 A's, 38% B's, and no D or F grades, and of another giving 45% 34,
NO. 3, MARCH, 1957
Each school was asked to record the number of faculty memhers teaching chemistry with a major in this field (approximately 36 units), r i t h a minor (approximately 20 units), and with neither major nor minor. The results are summarized in Tahle 3. As might he expected, the larger srhools are better able to use their staff in the suhject fields of their collegiate training, hut it is notable that on the average less than half the teachers of chemistry are trained primarily in this field and 14% have neither a major nor a minor in it. Staffing of high-school chemistry courses is a perplexing problem. The delicate and interdependent TABLE 3 Training of High School Chemistry Teachers
Percentage distribution
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C's, 30% D's, and 5y0 F's. However, it is not to be inferred that such unusual distributions as these necessarily represent regular practic-es in the schools suhmitting these data. Among the factors contributing to the wide differences in grade distribution, in addition to the usual statistical variations from class to class, are the differing prerequisite policies for admission to the chemistry course, the individual school's tradition of scholarship, and the instructor's personal approach to the problem of grading. Thirty-eight per cent of the grades given are in the "recommended" class, with no significant differences among the four groups of schools. From other studies based on general admission data and first-semester collegiate records, it is known that. private schools on an over-all basis grade slightly more rigorously than do large public schools but that students from the latter schools do slishtly better in their first semester a t the university. The medium and small public schools grade less rigorously and have slightly poorer collegiate records. Many high schools with good college preparatory records give up to 50y0 of recommended grades in their college preparatory courses, suggesting that effective screening processes are operative. Of some interest relative to grade distribution are the opinions of chemistry teachers on the mathematics preparation of their students. Forty-two per cent of the schools indicated that this factor "needed improvement," 50y0 t,hat it was "satisfactory," and 8% that it was "very good." The large puhlic high schools were somewhat more critical i f inadequate mathematical ability than mere .the other schools. High-school mathematics instruction is a matter of serious concern in the total picture of future scient,ific progress in this country. It was one of the two major recurrent themes arising in the hearings of the Research and Development Subcommittee of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy on the "Shortage of Scientific and Engineering Manpower" (April, 1956). These hearings reported that ". . . vigorous action is imperative to restore this important subject to its rightful place as a fundamental part of the curriculum. . ."
Class qf school
% of chemistry staff with major with minor G t h neither
58 37
50
5
15
35
35 40 25
41 44
47
15
14
35)
relation between science instructors, science instruction, and the recruitment of future scientists is now such as to create a downward spiral that progressively compounds the problem of securing well-trained science teachers even for a static school population, to say nothing of attempting to keep up with an expanding population. PHYSICAL FACILITIES
Among the objectives of this survey was an assessment of the status of the physical facilities devoted to chemistry instruction. For this purpose each respondent was asked to classify separately the laboratory equipment and laboratory space a t his high school according to whether it was "very good," "satisfactory," or "needs improvement." The responses are tabulated in Table 4, on a percentage basis. TABLE 4 Status of Physical Facilities for Chemistry Teaching P l n w "f d7""l
Laborstory equipment Very good, % Satisfactory, Yo Needs improvement, % Laboratory space Very good, % Satisfactory, Needs improvement,
L
M
S
P
Av.
47 41 12
34 43 23
34 45 21
32 59 9
39 47 14
37 37 26
35 37 28
20 41 39
40 41 19
35 38 27
The above figures suggest that the medium and small public schools are operating with less satisfactory physical facilities than are the large public schools and private schools, and that space is a more serious deficiency than is equipment. When the primary data are assigned numerical values and averages obtained, it is found that on an over-all basis laboratory equipment is rated as a little above satisfactory, and laboratory space as just about satisfactory. Someindividual schools mention serious handicaps incurred by virtue of poor facilities, and it may be inferred that a substantial fraction of the high schools are offering chemistry under less than satisfactory conditions. INTEREST IN THE PROFESSION OF CHEMISTRY
During the past five years the growing shortage of scientists bas developed to the point where it has be-
come a matter of national concern. While numerous suggestions both as to the causes of this condition and remedial action to relieve it have been advanced, one important aspect of this problem revolves about the apparent relative decrease in the appeal of a scientific career to the high-school student (only 11% of California high-school science majors are reported to plan on entering the field of chemistry). On the assumption that hieh-school chemistrv teachers would be aware of some or the factors contributing to this situation, they were asked to comment upon it. Many interesting and searching replies were obtained, and an attempt has been made to classify and arrange them according to their relative order of importance. Some of these general classes of answers overlap and are thus not always distinct, but general trends of opinion may be ascertained, as shown in Table 5 . --
TABLE 5 Teachem' Comments on Causes of Low Interest in Chemi s t an ~ a Profession 1. A reneral dislike for mathematics and quantitative thinking. 2. The sciences are too difficult compared with other fields that are easier to enter and which pay as well or better. 3. High-school curricula overemphasize athletics, drama, social sciences and group activities. The present teaching philosophy is driented toward social integration, personality development, and providing a. general exploratory experience. These trends offer little encouragement to the quiet, intellectually-minded student. 4. The present socia-economic climate doesn't foster selfdiscipline and intellectual attainment as compared with mooetarv success. 6 . Stimulating 1wrhit.r ir ilw:renrirrg ns 3 result nf ovrrvr0e.Uing xnd c x r w i r e work loads; iurrlwrmore, icwcr 2nd frww putcx.tiallv tlrdiwtrd trnulrrr arc rntcrmc - rhr firld l.ccnusc of r&tively row salaries. 6. Counselors are rarely familiar with or enthusiastic about the sciences. 7. Students receive insufficient interest~timulationin the lower grades. 8. Students have oor study habits and are ill prepared to master the miences wEen they reach the 11th grade.
I n addition to the above types of reply, other related reasons were mentioned as contributing to the relative lack of interest in science as a career. However, some teachers indicated that this negative trend was in process of reversal and that a shift in the direction of greater interest could be anticipated.
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