Combining Inquiry-Based and Team-Teaching Models to Design a

Article Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

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Combining Inquiry-Based and Team-Teaching Models to Design a Research-Driven, Cross-Disciplinary Laboratory Course Jeremy R. Burkett* and Timothy M. Dwyer Department of Chemistry, Stevenson University, 11200 Ted Herget Way, Owings Mills, Maryland 21117, United States

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S Supporting Information *

ABSTRACT: High-impact practices, and other pedagogical advancements, have been successfully used to deepen student engagement with courses over a wide variety of disciplines. Here, we describe the design, implementation, and assessment of a cross-disciplinary, inquiry-based lab course built on the proven success of these deeply engaging principles. This new course allowed students to complete novel research that drew upon both currently emerging molecular sensing techniques as well as long-standing, thoroughly understood cancer treatments. Students designed and tested their own analogues to an industry standard (cisplatin) and, using the data they collected, were able to draw substantive conclusions about the relative success of their attempts. We will also discuss some of the numerous benefits of offering a course like this as well as some of the drawbacks and limitations we encountered. In conclusion, we will also present the assessment of this course, both by the department and by the students themselves. KEYWORDS: Upper-Division Undergraduate, Biochemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, Interdisciplinary/Multidisciplinary, Inquiry-Based/Discovery Learning, Undergraduate Research

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INTRODUCTION Achieving deep, meaningful student engagement in science courses has been a long-standing struggle. For upper-level courses in particular, that contain increasingly difficult content, there can often be too little time to find adequate ways to connect what students are asked to learn with the reasons why they are asked to learn it. Our department recognized this disconnect and decided to re-examine both the content and the structure of several courses in the curriculum. The ideal opportunity to redesign courses and better engage students came during a recent program review where the department specifically identified the need to adjust the upper-level laboratory course requirements. In order to better align with the credit hour recommendations for an American Chemical Society (ACS) certified program, the separate Biochemistry and Inorganic lab courses were deactivated and a new, single cross-disciplinary course was created in its place (“Integrative Lab”). Students would then take this new course after completing their General Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, and Inorganic Chemistry sequences and concurrently with their Biochemistry sequence. Finally, the department also used this as an opportunity to incorporate emerging and cutting-edge techniques1 in this new course, instead of basing it on more traditional “canned” lab exercises. In light of recent pedagogical developments and the proven educational benefits of high-impact practices (active learning techniques that promote and increase student engagement), instructors in any discipline now have increasing access to © XXXX American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.

these ideas and methods and can implement them into their courses to help deepen their student’s engagement with the material.2−7 One way of doing this is to intentionally include engaging and “authentic” experiences in undergraduate courses. This technique has been employed by a diverse variety of disciplines, from the sciences to business and marketing courses, with instructors in many fields observing similar positive educational outcomes.2,8 While the specific types of experiences and practices vary from discipline to discipline, the benefits to the students taking those courses are ultimately the same. The new course described in this article is certainly not the first report of inquiry- or research-based pedagogies, nor the first report of a cross-disciplinary, team-teaching approach.9−13 However, it is the combination of these powerful educational techniques described here that is a novel and attractive option for programs looking for additional ways to deepen the engagement of their students. For the sciences in particular, the literature shows that students interviewed about their undergraduate research experiences respond overwhelmingly positively; they report feeling more confident in their own research abilities and that they will be capable of being successful and contributing to the field as a professional scientist.8 Furthermore, the benefits of integrating authentic research experiences into undergraduate courses were underscored by the President’s Council of Received: November 15, 2018 Revised: February 11, 2019

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DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00940 J. Chem. Educ. XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX

Journal of Chemical Education

Article

Content Design

Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) report in 2012, a report not only detailing the proven success of exposing undergraduates to research experiences but also imploring institutions to increase their efforts to install this powerful technique into their curricula.14 Here, we will describe the design, implementation, and assessment of our Integrative Laboratory course, a team-taught, cross-disciplinary lab experience combining the fields of Inorganic and Biochemistry.

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We decided to focus the direction and scope of the course around the cancer drug cisplatin, primarily because the history, synthesis, functionality, and educational power of this complex are well-established.1,15−17 This then led to “front loading” the semester with some general instructions and background information about the drug, helping the students to learn the basics of how the complex functions, why it has been a successful cancer treatment, as well as what some of the problems are. The students discovered that although this drug has been used for a long time, many patients suffer from mild to severe side effects. Milder side effects of undergoing platinum-based therapies can include anemia, nausea, and vomiting while some of the more serious cases can involve severe instances of nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.18−20 Providing this foundation allowed the instructors to then immediately pose the main research question that the students would be using the rest of the semester to answer: “Can you design and test an analogue to cisplatin that addresses some of the problems associated with platinum-based drugs while retaining some of the functionality of them?” While a single semester is clearly not enough time to fully design and test a commercial-grade, novel cancer treatment, there certainly is enough time to have the students at least think about all the various aspects. For example, while a group may not have enough time to actually test for side effects of their new drugs, they will at least be able to explain why they think their drug might be an improvement, providing a reason that draws from their knowledge of inorganic and biochemical concepts. Synthetically, we wanted the students to have experience with several different inorganic processes. In addition to designing and synthesizing their own analogues, students were also required to synthesize cisplatin itself, which they used as a standard against which they could compare the activity of their newly conceived drugs. A protocol for them to do this was intentionally not provided. Instead, students were given guidance to find protocols on their own. Many students successfully tracked down the original Dhara synthesis from 197010 while others found modifications of that procedure that were posted on various university Web sites, clearly adapted for an undergraduate lab setting. When it came to helping students design analogues to cisplatin, students were reminded that, while there are certainly many reasons that cisplatin has worked so well, a main factor is its ability to tightly bind to DNA. Furthermore, one of the primary conditions that allows the drug to bind to DNA is the cis conformation of the chloride ligands. Since they will be provided with the means to directly test the binding of their compounds to DNA, they were instructed to make this the main focus of their drug design. Considering that factor alone, it would be reasonable to predict that designing and synthesizing other metal complexes that contained that feature (cis chloride ligands) could result in a drug with similar behavior. It was suggested to the students that there might be a variety of ways to approach that design. There are several other metals that readily form square planar complexes; there are also metals that form octahedral complexes that could still be manipulated to contain cis chloride conformations, and although not entirely identical, there might even be some benefit to exploring some tetrahedral complexes, investigating whether the ∼109.5° angle ligand positions might still be close enough to allow binding to the DNA (Figure 1).

METHODS

Fundamental Course Design

From the outset, we approached this course using a teamteaching model. To deliver an authentic cross-disciplinary experience, we recognized the need to give the students access to instructors with a depth of knowledge in both content areas. The schedule and staffing of the course were made so that both the Inorganic and Biochemistry professors attended each class period. This way, any student, at any time, could ask questions and receive guidance about nearly any aspect of either field. As an added benefit, since both instructors were working together each period, the professors were also able to model a more realistic research environment for the students, demonstrating that collaboration between experts in different fields is essential to performing research in the “real world”. The course was also designed to meet for five contact hours per week (one 3 h period on 1 day, one 2 h period on another). As mentioned earlier, an assessment of the curriculum as a whole identified that the previous curricular requirements for laboratory courses exceeded the recommended number of contact hours for an ACS certified program. By creating this new 5 h course, the department could then remove the 3 h lab from the Inorganic course, as well as the 3 h lab from the Biochemistry course (leaving them as lecture courses only) which brought the previously required 6 h (total) down by one contact hour. Although the total number of lab hours was reduced, it was recognized that by the strengthening of both the content and the experiences of these new courses, the students would still be provided with the preparation they needed to meet the outcomes of the program and successfully complete their degrees. Finally, we included several other elements that are commonly found in research-focused courses. Students worked in semester-long groups of three or four. They were also required to keep an electronic lab notebook (LabArchives) where they documented all the work they did for the entire course. A full, journal-style article and oral presentation about their work rounded out the graded elements of the class. The semester was structured so that the students would turn in drafts of the sections of their article (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion/Conclusion) at intervals every few weeks, so that they could receive peer and instructor feedback on their writing progress. While each student was required to write and submit their own article, the oral presentations were given as a group and scheduled to coincide with the final exam timeslot allotted to the course. All of these elements were included to help further the student’s exposure to an authentic research experience. Group work, documentation of experiments and results, and presentations (both written and oral) are all integral components of professional scientific careers. B



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include GG or AG sequences so that their drug complexes have the opportunity to bind to the target and prevent its hybridization with the beacon. In this way, successful drug interactions will sequester the target strands and result in a beacon with a closed hairpin, producing little or no observable fluorescent signal. Conversely, drugs that do not bind to the target will allow for a proper hybridization between the target and beacon strands and yield an observable emission peak. By comparing the relative intensities of the fluorescence of their controls and synthesized drugs, the students can then make qualitative statements about the efficacy of their designed complexes, as they relate to the activity of cisplatin. To collect the fluorescence data itself, an Ocean Optics Jaz spectrometer system was adapted, replacing the stock 385 nm LED excitation source with a 490 nm LED which could sufficiently excite the beacon’s fluorophore. While the department owns a high-quality, more traditional “table-top” fluorimeter, the choice was made to use the Ocean Optics system because it offered the same research-grade optics with the added educational benefit of opening the “black box” of instrumentation through its component-based construction (Figure 3). By working with each component of the setup

Figure 1. Suggested design routes provided to the students when considering their analogues. The curved arrows indicate the desired cis conformation of the chloride ligands for the students to focus on.

To provide the students a way to reliably test the DNA binding activity of any complexes they synthesize, heavy use was made of the recent developments in fluorescent sensing techniques that use molecular beacons.1,21−23 The molecular beacons are 25−30 base, single-stranded pieces of DNA with complementary sequences at each end. Possessing these 5−6 base complementary sequences at both ends allows the strands to circle back and hybridize at the tips while the rest of the strand forms a longer loop, or “hairpin”, structure in between (Figure 2). Additionally, by attaching a fluorophore on one

Figure 2. Overview of the method of action of the molecular beacons.

Figure 3. Component-based design of the Ocean Optics Jaz spectrometer system configured to measure fluorescence.

end (λexcitation = 490 nm) with a quencher on the other, the beacon is ready to serve as a fluorescent sensor. In its closed, hairpin formation, any excitation and emission of the fluorophore is immediately absorbed due to its close proximity to the quencher. However, exposing the beacon to a second strand (“target”) of DNA that is complementary to the long, inner loop of the hairpin structure can result in a hybridization that opens up the beacon and moves the fluorophore far away from the quencher. In this form, exciting the fluorophore will result in a detectable emission since the quencher is too far away to absorb it. Although they could refer to articles for help, students were tasked with designing unique sequences for their own molecular beacon and target strands. Since it is the target strands that will ultimately by exposed to their cisplatin and analogue compounds, the students must understand how the beacons and targets work and must remember to intentionally

(source, detector, etc.), students could more easily link the information and theory they learned from other courses about the construction and function of an instrument to the hands-on experience of using one. Additionally, the real-time display of the software as well as the exposed nature of the sample holder allowed the students to visually see the fluorescence while they collected quantitative data, something they cannot do with the more traditional, table-top fluorimeters. We were also very interested in determining whether or not the team-teaching approach was an effective method of delivering this course since every other course in the curriculum is taught with a single instructor. To that end, precourse and postcourse surveys were administered to collect the student’s feedback on precisely that aspect. Four objectives of the course were selected that we felt could be the most directly impacted by team-teaching and were posed to the students as qualitative statements at the beginning and then C



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again at the end of the semester. A five-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree through 5 = Strongly Agree) was used for students to rate their responses, and the surveys were administered over the first two semesters the course was offered. The statements provided were the following:

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of their own product compared favorably with the industrially produced sample (Figure 5).

1. I think that the dual-teaching method will be/was effective in helping me design, plan and execute experiments that build on relevant scientific literature. 2. I think that the dual-teaching method will be/was effective in helping me communicate effectively through oral and written reports. 3. I think that the dual-teaching method will be/was effective in helping me work effectively in small groups and teams as well as independently. 4. I think that the dual-teaching method will be/was effective in helping me exhibit behaviors consistent with the professional and ethical standards of the discipline. Figure 5. Sample of student-collected IR spectra demonstrating the nearly identical spectra of their own synthesized product compared to that of an industrially prepared sample we provided. Reproduced with permission of the students.

RESULTS (The course was offered both during the Fall and Spring semesters; the following results are a combination of the two semesters.) Each group was able to reproduce the work of the Shire and Loppnow molecular beacon paper,1 the main source article they were provided at the beginning of the semester. Groups began by synthesizing cisplatin, following whatever protocol their group had tracked down. The idea behind this was to help the students, who all register for the course having a variety of synthetic chemistry backgrounds, to refresh their lab skills with this fairly straightforward synthesis. Regardless of the exact protocol they might have found, all groups ultimately made cisplatin by first making the cis-iodo intermediate, since this approach takes advantage of the trans effect and significantly improves the yield of cisplatin in the end. Students collected IR spectra of both their intermediates and their final cisplatin product which allowed them to see and explain the similarities in the shifts they observed (Figure 4). Groups were also provided with a sample of cisplatin purchased directly from a supplier so that they could compare their own product with a standard to determine how successful their synthesis was. Most of the groups discovered that the IR

As the students turned their attention to designing analogues to cisplatin, a variety of approaches emerged. Although help was provided throughout the process, students were encouraged to take the lead on their designs. Drawing from the foundational information provided at the beginning of the course, some students focused on finding other metals that readily form square complexes (Ni, Pd, etc.). Citing the economic benefits of choosing a metal like nickel, some groups focused on ways to create square planar nickel complexes with cis chloro groups in high yield, deciding to take advantage of bidentate ligands like ethylenediamine to guarantee the desired final conformation. Other groups decided to focus on palladium complexes, correctly pointing out that any successful compounds would be much closer in size to platinum-based drugs, though also costlier. One group even found some current cancer research being performed on a particular palladium complex and decided to synthesize the same complex, not attempting to make a novel compound but rather focusing on ways to improve and simplify the reported protocol. 24 Although groups were encouraged to try developing molecules not already published in the literature, in cases like this, the students were allowed to proceed because they demonstrated a high level of interest in that particular study in addition to providing the instructors with a thoughtful proposal for how their protocols would be different from the published research. Other groups decided to design complexes using extremely common metals like iron and copper, knowing that their products would most likely result in octahedral complexes, not the square planar conformations of the platinum family of metals. These groups focused on the use of polydentate nitrogen-based ligands to essentially “tie up” all but two cis ligand binding positions, allowing two chlorides to still occupy this desired conformation. This approach forced the groups to wrestle with polydentate ligand choice, quickly discovering that not all tetradentate ligands necessarily guarantee a particular conformational outcome. Although similar, students found that the more linear triethylenetetramine (trien) could potentially yield two different complexes depending on which four ligand

Figure 4. Sample of student-collected IR spectra demonstrating the observed differences between their intermediate and final product of their cisplatin synthesis. Reproduced with permission of the students. D



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With functioning molecular beacons in hand, the students brought everything together in the latter stages of the course to determine if their approaches were successful. At this point, every group started by determining what effect cisplatin would have on their beacons by following the exact fluorescence testing protocol from the Shire and Loppnow paper.1 In nearly all cases, groups observed a significant decrease in signal for the trials where the target sequences had been incubated with cisplatin (Figure 8). With their “baseline” established, groups

positions it bound to as opposed to the tripodal tris(2aminoethyl)amine which is sterically limited to only one binding pattern (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Example of student’s process for choosing ligands (leading to the complexes they would result in) and designing octahedral complexes that guarantee a product with a cis chloro conformation.

Upon receiving their target sequences and beacons (ordered from IDT DNA), the groups performed a simple heating test to verify that their hairpin structures were correctly hybridizing. Taking a sample containing nothing but the molecular beacon and buffer, the students would heat the mixture to 80 °C and immediately place it in the fluorimeter. The heat caused the beacons to denature, opening the loop and moving the fluorophore away from the quencher, which allowed for detection of emitted light. Over time, as the sample cooled, the ends of the loop rehybridized and quenched the observed signal (Figure 7A,B).

Figure 8. Sample of student results comparing the intensity of the fluorescent signal from beacons exposed to treated (cisplatin) and untreated (control) target sequences. Reproduced with permission of the students (original student image resolution).

then compared the signal of the trials where they incubated the target sequences with their analogues. While the results were varied due to the vast differences in design approaches and synthetic success, many groups did observe a decrease in signal (compared to their control) from their novel drug complexes. A representative sample of these results is provided below (Figure 9A,B). Finally, the results from the assessment demonstrate the increase in the students’ perception of their learning by providing the class access to two instructors with different content expertise in a research-based course (Figure 10). While the results for statement 3 do show some overlap in standard error, all other responses revealed a statistically significant improvement in the student’s perception of the team-teaching approach when comparing their anticipation of the course at the beginning to their actual experience of the course at the end of the semester. Additionally, the majority of students expressed in the written portion of their end-of-semester surveys how much they felt that they had grown as a scientist and researcher, specifically because they had taken this course (survey included in Supporting Information). This feedback appears to speak to the gains that the students perceive they have made in both their technical skill as well as critical thinking abilities.

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DISCUSSION While it is difficult to make many definitive statements about the success or failure of an intentionally open-ended course like this one, several observations can still be made. Because relatively few concrete requirements were set up, assessing a course like this cannot be done by determining whether or not the students reached certain points by certain times during the semester. In keeping with the primary objective of this course, to provide students with a cross-disciplinary, research-based

Figure 7. (A, B) Two examples of a student’s results of a typical cooling trial, demonstrating the initial opening of the beacon with heat (80 °C) and the slow loss of fluorescence as the sample cooled and rehybridized. Reproduced with permission of the students (original student image resolution). E



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inorganic synthetic products successfully provided the students a cross-disciplinary experience. In a similar fashion, trying to label the outcomes of individual group’s designs and experiments as successes or failures is equally difficult. It was quickly recognized that there would certainly be cases of students making mistakes along the way, so basing grades or outcomes on successful syntheses or fluorescence measurements was inconsistent with the goals for designing this course. For the groups who were not able to successfully synthesize an analogue, or groups that may have inadvertently contaminated their beacon samples, the focus of their final articles and presentations centered on what they learned from those experiences. These groups developed the valuable ability of discovering something that went wrong, analyzing why it happened, and making plans to avoid that mistake in the future, certainly a skill that is vital in the professional research world. There were also groups that may have been successful in synthesizing the analogues they planned to, only to discover that those complexes may have exhibited little to no effect in binding to the target sequences. In these cases, it was reinforced to the students that negative results are still results that inform future research efforts. Placing emphasis, and basing their grades, on what the students learned and how well they communicated those things was a critical element in helping to allow them the freedom they needed in order to have an authentic research experience. We were encouraged to see that the students’ selfassessment of the team-teaching approach seemed to indicate that they felt this aspect was a positive and beneficial course experience (Figure 10). The fact that students indicated that team-teaching added to their learning and communication skills suggests that the positive outcomes of the course as a whole were, in part, due to the team-teaching aspect and validated the allocation of the time and effort of two professors. To also have nearly all the students express their own perceived growth as scientists was equally encouraging. Finally, the journal-style articles were assessed by the Chemistry Department to ensure that the course met the program objectives focused on applying chemical principles to the real world and planning, designing, executing, and interpreting experiments (rubric included in Supporting Information). Independent reading of the articles from each student by at least two faculty members (not the instructors for the course) led to the conclusion that nearly all students met or exceeded expectations for these objectives. In addition, this assessment indicated that the area where students had more difficulty is in the interpretation of experimental results; this will be an area where the course can be improved for future semesters. Designing upper-level lab courses to be research-based and cross-disciplinary clearly provides many benefits to the student. Access to two instructors models the reality that big, openended problems are best approached from multiple viewpoints. Students also learn that teamwork and the interpersonal skills necessary for groups to function efficiently are vitally important to successful research. Being exposed to long-term, difficult research questions also teaches students that it is perfectly normal to struggle with something, that the difficulty of a process does not necessarily determine the success or failure of that endeavor. The fact that difficulty is present throughout the semester also bolsters the students’ confidence when they ultimately are successful, and the breakthroughs that they

Figure 9. (A, B) Two different examples of student fluorescence measurements that show the comparative activity of their designed analogue in relation to a treated (cisplatin) and untreated (control) sample. (B) “Grey” and “yellow” designations in the legend are the students’ attempt to differentiate between two different synthesized products they tested. Reproduced with permission of the students (original student image resolution).

Figure 10. Averaged results from the precourse and postcourse surveys administered to assess the effectiveness of the team-teaching approach (n = 22). Each statement had a minimum possible score of 1 and a maximum possible score of 5.

experience, the fact that the many groups who have taken this course approached the design of their analogues in different ways attests to the research experience the students received. Structuring the course this way successfully encouraged groups to explore unique and different solutions, similar to the way research works in the professional world. Additionally, intentionally requiring students to consider and apply biochemical techniques (molecular beacon sensors) to F



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experience can be intrinsically more valuable to them precisely because they were not easily accomplished. Students are not the only ones that can benefit from this approach to lab courses. This concept is almost infinitely adaptable. Departments at different universities can design courses that make use of specialized equipment their facilities possess, leverage external partnerships or collaborations they may have, or even cycle the pairings of faculty to lead to new inspirations for course content. The benefits to an institution can also potentially include increases to retention of majors in a department, due to the enhanced engagement the students are experiencing throughout the curriculum. While the benefits of this approach to the students and the school are certainly appealing, we also recognized some difficulties associated with this concept. Since team-teaching is a vital element to the success of a course like this, departments will have to consider the financial and teaching load implications of that approach. Along with the financial considerations, successful team-teaching relies heavily on the interpersonal relationship of the two instructors assigned to the course. It is extremely important that the two instructors can work and communicate well with each other since an openended research course inevitably involves both a great deal of preparation beforehand as well as constant evaluation, and potential changes, to those plans once the semester is underway. If departments attempt to staff courses like this by randomly teaming up instructors, it could potentially lead to ineffective pairings if personalities or working styles clash. Finally, we also recognize that designing a course that encourages students to answer some specific research question may result in an experience that does not necessarily expose the student to every possible technique that a particular branch of chemistry involves. More traditional approaches to lab courses, that assign predetermined exercises on a weekly basis, can easily focus on one technique or process each period, exposing the student to a wide variety of skills by the end of the semester. By contrast, focusing the students on a long-term central research question may result in a heavier reliance on only a handful of techniques, an experience that might omit certain processes or skills entirely. However, the narrow but deep experience students receive in this course is good training and provides a solid foundation of problem-solving skills on which they can learn and add new techniques they will encounter in the future. Overall, we feel that the design, implementation, and assessment of our Integrative Laboratory course successfully increased student engagement by combining multiple highimpact practices. We believe that this approach to course design can help any department include or adapt curricular elements that will enhance their student’s undergraduate experiences. Combining highly impactful courses with faculty who have the creative freedom to design and offer new content can certainly be a powerful addition to any school’s science program.

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AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

*E-mail: [email protected]. ORCID

Jeremy R. Burkett: 0000-0001-8179-0523 Notes

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank our department and colleagues for their helpful insights as we designed and ran this course. We would also like to thank the many students who kindly agreed to allow us to use their work and results as examples in this article.

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REFERENCES

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ASSOCIATED CONTENT

S Supporting Information *

The Supporting Information is available on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00940. Survey instrument (PDF) Assessment rubric (PDF, DOCX) G



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Combining Inquiry-Based and Team-Teaching Models to Design a

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