Community-Based Undergraduate Research: Measurement of

Chapter 2

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Community-Based Undergraduate Research: Measurement of Hazardous Air Pollutants with Regard to Environmental Justice Kathryn Zimmermann,*,1 Laura Young,2 and Kelsey Woodard3 1School of Science and Technology, Georgia Gwinnett College, 1000 University Center Lane, Lawrenceville, Georgia 30043, United States 2School of Liberal Arts, Georgia Gwinnett College, 1000 University Center Lane, Lawrenceville, Georgia 30043, United States 3Center for Teaching Excellence, Georgia Gwinnet College, 1000 University Center Lane, Lawrenceville, Georgia 30043, United States *E-mail: [email protected].

Environmental justice focuses on disparate exposures of communities to pollution based on race, national origin, or income level. This collaborative study, which paired faculty and undergraduate students from political science and chemistry disciplines with an external community advisor, collected data to help bring environmental justice issues to the forefront of discussions in their community. Interdisciplinary, undergraduate researchers from Georgia Gwinnett College measured gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), using passive sampling methods, in communities with differing demographic indicators. This undergraduate research project leveraged student interest and motivation in social justice themes to address a community-based question that combines physical (environmental chemistry) and social science (political science).

© 2018 American Chemical Society Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.

Introduction


Georgia Gwinnett College Georgia Gwinnett College (GGC), a public, open-access, four-year, liberal arts college in the University System of Georgia, opened in 2005. In the last twelve years, GGC has grown exponentially from 120 students to over 12,000 students, with 67.7% enrolled as full-time undergraduates (1). GGC was recently ranked as the most ethnically diverse college in the South (2), and has the distinction as an emerging Hispanic Serving Institution. Many of GGC’s students are self-supported, first generation college students, and, as of Fall 2016, 52% of GGC students were Pell Grant Eligible (1). GGC offers an unique opportunity to gain higher education, often admitting at least 80% of applicants. The student demographics as of Fall 2015 are listed below in Table 1, exemplifying the diversity of the college as a whole, the school of science and technology (SST), the school of liberal arts (SLA), and the student demographics in the Environmental Justice Community Innovations Project (EJ-CIP) conducted during the 2016-2017 academic year.

Table 1. Demographic distribution of student population of the entire college (GGC), the SST, the SLA (1), and the undergraduate project described in this chapter (EJ-CIP) Demographic

% Black

% Hispanic

% First Generation College Studenta

% Female

% Above the age of 23

GGC

32.6

16.9

41.7

56.2

24.6

SST

33.3

16.3

38.8

44.4

25.2

SLA

37.2

17.6

40.5

63.6

27.0

EJ-CIP Projectb

57.1

0

N/S

85.7

28.6

a For the Fall 2015 semester, 2,469 students who did not provide first-generation information are excluded from the sample (1). b Demographic information for the EJ-CIP Project was collected using self-reported data from a student survey of the project. N/S corresponds to data that was “not surveyed” in this questionnaire.

The EJ-CIP undergraduate research project brought together an interdisciplinary team of two GGC faculty members (Political Science and Chemistry) and seven undergraduate students. GreenLaw, a non-profit environmental law firm based in downtown Atlanta, served as the community-based external advisor to the project. The environmental justice focus of the project served to leverage student interest and motivation in the application of both social and physical scientific practices to a community-based issue. The outcome goals of this undergraduate research project were multifaceted and listed as follows: 22 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.

• • • •

Motivate and engage students in applied research and experiential learning through a community-based, interdisciplinary project; Integrate students with an external advisor, as well as other members, in their regional community; Improve student knowledge of environmental justice history, policies, and research; and Improve interdisciplinary communication and understanding at an undergraduate level.


Experiential Learning at an Open Access Institution GGC, and other public, four-year universities of its kind, are met with various challenges and opportunities to meet the demands and needs of their diverse and open access student population (3). To address some of these challenges at GGC and other institutions, the University System of Georgia (USG) Board of Regents became an official partner of the Liberal Education and America’s Promise (LEAP) Initiative under the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AACU), forming a consortium called LEAP State Georgia Consortium. In 2005, the AACU’s LEAP Initiative was launched with a call to national public advocacy and campus action, responding to contemporary demands for an increase in college-educated workers and more engaged and informed citizens. Termed as high-impact educational practices, LEAP activities are a parasol of experiential education, widely tested and shown to engage and challenge students. They are also proven to increase rates of student retention and be beneficial for college students of various backgrounds (4, 5). The Association for Experiential Education defines this practice as “a philosophy and methodology in which educators purposefully engage with students in direct experiences and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills, clarify values, and develop one’s capacity to contribute to their communities (6).” In other words, the process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct experience is called experiential learning (EL). These direct experiences take on various forms, including first-year seminars and experiences, community service, fieldwork, sensitivity training groups, internships, cooperative education with community partners, participation in faculty-led research, service-learning, and community-based learning and research, the latter of which will be explored in the next section. Renowned philosophers, educators, and trailblazers of the EL approach, Aristotle, John Dewey, David Kolb, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, all believe that true learning takes place when the experience allows the student to 1) harness their own learning, both in and outside the classroom; 2) bridge prior and current knowledge; 3) serve a societal and individual learner purpose; and 4) realize-life/world application. Speaking to the harnessing, bridging, purpose, and application, Dewey (7) believed that educators (faculty) must understand and take into account human experience, stating that “Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself.” By doing so, faculty serve as facilitators of learning and become better reflective practitioners, bridging the traditional and progressive sides of education. 23 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


GGC’s Community Innovations Project Program In 2015, a survey by Hart Research Associates on behalf of the AACU demonstrated that employers place a high priority on collaborative team work and application of skills to real world issues when hiring recent graduates (Figure 1) (8). However, this survey also showed a disconnect between the skill sets desired for employment and employers’ ratings of these skills in newly hired graduates (8). In an effort to address this incongruity in expectations and observations of employers, to align with LEAP’s charge, and to support GGC’s vison and mission, GGC’s Center for Teaching Excellence (CTE) supported the creation of the Community Innovations Project (CIP) program. The goal of this program is to encourage engaged, public scholarship, giving students an opportunity to work alongside faculty on interdisciplinary projects which are considered important to (and defined by) members of the community. Such an opportunity integrates faculty roles of teaching, research, and service, allows students to gain hands-on experience putting their knowledge into practice, and cultivates genuine, intentional relationships with the community.

Figure 1. Top: Percentage of employers that rated the described skills as very important for recent graduates to have. Bottom: Percent of “much” greater likelihood of hire if recent college graduates have had the following experiences. Reprinted with permission from Falling Short: College Learning and Career Success. Copyright 2015 by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (8). With its underpinnings in service learning, the pilot CIP program is a form of community-based research (CBR), where expertise is derived from community members themselves. Community members are the content experts and voice of expression for the community’s need for interaction with the academic institution. This interaction allows for reciprocity and supports a mutually beneficial relationship between key players (students, faculty, community members/external advisors, and institutions). This also allows for a true intergenerational partnership 24 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.

of learning to occur, thereby fostering learning communities to meet the call of nurturing civic minded students and future leaders. Principles of CBR are (9): •

•


•

To create a collaborative relationship between members of the community and researchers (professors and/or students). It engages university faculty, students and staff with diverse partners and community members; To validate multiple sources of knowledge and encourage the use of many methods of discovery and of distribution of the knowledge produced; and To create a form that is also participative (among other reasons, change is usually easier to achieve when those affected by the change are involved) and qualitative.

The CIP program was inspired by a similar program currently employed at Harvey Mudd College. The Clinic Program, a hallmark of the Harvey Mudd College for over 50 years, focuses on small groups of undergraduate students working for corporate and government sponsors to design, develop, or conduct research according to the needs of the sponsor (10, 11). The CIP program takes a similar approach, but implements this community-based EL at an open-access, liberal arts, institution. In Spring 2016, the pilot program successfully launched a request for proposals for interdisciplinary faculty/student teams to work on a one-year project addressing real-world problems, identified as important by a local external community partner organization, such as a for-profit company, not-for-profit organization, governmental agency, or non-academic unit of GGC. Project teams consisted of two or more GGC faculty Principal Investigators (PIs), three or more students (junior standing), and an advisor from an external organization. Grant awards were in the amount of $7,000 for each one-year team project, with $3,000 allocated to faculty for summer stipends during project planning. Using the PARE (Prepare, Action, Reflection, and Evaluation) Model as a guide, the CTE held a pre-planning summer orientation to curate a supportive environment and explore topics including types of EL pedagogy, student learning outcomes and expectations, importance of reflection, community partner relationship and expectations, logistics and risk management, and mandatory project reporting dates. The CTE also communicated with external advisors regarding the CIP process, expectations, and memorandums of understanding (MOUs). At the end of the academic year, all projects were expected to result in a deliverable, such as a formal report, presentation, or prototype/work of design, etc. All project teams were also required to make a formal presentation at the end of the academic year. During the pilot year, two projects were funded, including the EJ-CIP project focused on environmental justice with regard to hazardous air pollutants. With evaluation feedback from 2016 – 17 pilot CIP teams, the program has continued for another academic year, providing Grantmanship Informational sessions for interested faculty teams, focusing on professional development in proposal writing and discussion of opportunities and challenges presented by previous awardees. 25

Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


Environmental Justice and Air Pollution The United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) defines environmental justice as the “fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws (12).” Although environmental justice is not universally defined, it usually refers to the belief that citizens of a certain ethnicity or socioeconomic class should not disproportionately face the burden of the externalities related to pollution and other environmental health hazards. Though there are different interpretations of this term, most definitions share the common theme of justice in distribution, procedures, and process (13). Air quality, which can negatively influence human health (such as rates of asthma and negative effects on the cardiopulmonary system) (14, 15), has been previously studied with respect to environmental justice. Several studies, focusing on atmospheric particulate matter (PM), have shown that minority and low income communities have higher exposure to environmental contaminants via air pollution (16–20). Apelberg et al. (21) found that on-road sources of air toxics might be an area to focus policy changes with respect to reducing the disproportionate health burden of air pollution based on socioeconomic status or race. This is important because, while the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) monitoring provides data for exposure differences between communities for air quality parameters such as CO, lead, NO2, O3, PM and SO2, less is known about the distribution of exposure to toxic hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). This is due to the diverse chemical properties and the number of molecules categorized as HAPs (22, 23). Two previous studies (24, 25) have shown that, due to mobile sources (such as high traffic density), exposure to air toxics and the associated risks are disproportionately shouldered by minority and low-income communities. As a result, the EJ-CIP project investigated environmental justice with respect to HAPs, focusing on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The topic of environmental justice is of particular importance in the state of Georgia, since, as of 2010, it is one of only five states that has not addressed environmental justice in the form of any initiatives, task forces, programs, or employees working at the state level (26). Thus, one aim of this study was to analyze the spatial variability in concentrations of gas-phase PAHs and possible correlations of PAH concentrations with demographic indicators such as percent minority population, percent linguistic isolation, or percent below poverty level. A second goal for this study was to provide preliminary data and proof of concept for using passive air sampling as a method to build a database of spatial HAPs concentrations that can be used to support community discussions and policies regarding environmental justice and air quality. Interdisciplinary Undergraduate Research: Importance of Combining Political Science and Environmental Chemistry Higher education is increasingly looking for ways to facilitate interdisciplinary communication. In fact, interdisciplinary curriculum was 26 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


found to be the “number-one issue in American education (27).” This focus is because of the many benefits due to increased conversations amongst disciplines. Specifically, interdisciplinary education encourages critical thinking within one’s own discipline and leads to more holistic approaches to solving some of the world’s more complex, pressing issues, while improving self-discipline. Interdisciplinary education also prepares students for modern working conditions that call for increasing amounts of multi-professional teamwork, giving future generations further ability to consciously approach complex problems in group settings with colleagues of different skill sets (28). Increasing communication and collaboration in non-traditional academic groups also typically leads to an increase in creativity (27). Embarking on interdisciplinary research or teaching requires focus on thematic integration, which becomes the organizer and a driver for the curriculum. Knowledge integration is also important. This “is achieved when interactive and connective relationships…are established between the knowledge and skills in the two or more disciplines (27).” Special attention must therefore be placed on finding a common link between the disciplines and focusing on the skills needed to understand those links. This means learner-initiated integration is also key because it helps lead students to discover connections. This is done by placing a value on independent thinking which can help the student ask questions and find connections between the disciplines; “to develop sequential understandings in separate areas of knowledge and skill; and to establish thought patterns or mindsets that lead them to look for” the necessary links and “connective relationships across all areas of learning (27).” The topic of environmental justice (the subject of the EJ-CIP research project) provides thematic integration to engage multiple disciplines because of the interdisciplinary nature of the topic itself. Specific to the issue of environmental justice, physical scientists must gather data and quantify exposures of different populations to HAPs, and policy specialists must analyze demographics of different communities, examine policies currently in place that address this issue, and generate ideas for moving forward with evidence-based policies. Thus, environmental justice combines a mixture of scientific expertise, socio-economic analysis, and a knowledge of legal and historical requirements. For example, public policy experts are interested in why certain groups are targeted with externalities related to pollution, why the targeted groups are unable to fight against policies that affect them negatively, and why regulatory efforts by policymakers may fail to protect vulnerable populations. Those interested in health policy use the level and type of exposure to understand what policies should be adopted to combat health related issues in differing regions or communities. Public administrators focus on issues related to urban planning, including the regulations and laws dictating the placement of polluting facilities. Alternatively, political economists aim to understand the impact of pollution on the economy. Political economists can also combine their work with health policy experts to determine the number of sick days missed from work due to environmental justice issues and the impact these absences have on the economy as a whole. 27



The environmental justice work of public policy experts would not be possible without the data provided by physical scientists such as chemists, biologists, and epidemiologists. The work of physical scientists is essential for collecting the data analyzed by policy experts to answer the questions they pose and to implement evidence-based policies (29). Specifically, chemists are able to analyze complex mixtures to quantify HAPs in communities, giving an estimation of exposure rates to different toxic compounds. Biologists can use mouse-model studies or cellular assays to assess the toxicity of different compounds or the possible synergistic effects of mixtures. This work combines with that of epidemiologists using crosssectional or longitudinal studies to assess human health effects of exposure. One of the challenges faced by the teaching and learning of both political science and chemistry (the two disciplines most heavily combined in this project) is to maintain relevance in the eyes of students. During the EJ-CIP project, the thematic integration of the two fields to investigate social justice issues in the form of exposure to toxic air pollutants was used to demonstrate the relevant nature of both fields in the lives of students and their communities. One goal of such project-based research within the community is to give students the opportunity to link expertise gained from coursework with application to a real-life challenge and the ability to drive or direct positive change. For example, students who study public policy (SLA students) may encounter challenges interpreting the source or meaning of chemical exposure data. SST students, on the other hand, may not see the relevance of their work or how it can possibly impact policy decisions. This deficiency in interdisciplinary understanding from both fields can result in the impediment of sound future policy analyses and implementation. In sum, from an environmental justice perspective, there is an intimate link between science and public policy. This relationship also exists between policy and other scientific endeavors, since funding for a variety of scientific investigations is often influenced by public policy and it is imperative that public policy is evidenced-based and data-driven. Since this mutualism between policy-makers and scientists makes it necessary that communication between the two fields flows efficiently (29–32), it is important to introduce undergraduate students to the role of science in public policy and vice versa. Thus, the EJ-CIP project integrated students on an interdisciplinary level, early in their career development, aiming to strengthen communication across the policy and physical science disciplines. Previous approaches to this challenge have included curriculum development for upper level chemistry courses that include problem- and project-based learning with an environmental focus (31, 33–37). However, teaching chemistry with public policy implications and themes only confronts one-half of the communication challenge. Interdisciplinary communication must be encouraged in both directions. Not only must physical science students understand policy implications, but political science students must also be proficient in the scientific method and data interpretation. As a result of the above challenges, effort in the EJ-CIP study was directed to require students to work outside of their field of expertise. SLA students worked alongside SST students in the field and laboratory, while SST students worked with SLA students on demographic and policy analysis (Figure 2). This encouraged students to ask questions of one 28



another, communicate openly, and discover important relationships between the social and physical sciences, resulting in facilitated dialogue between future policy makers and scientists from an early stage in their careers.

Figure 2. A Venn diagram which shows the interdisciplinary nature of the project, in which students from both fields of expertise were required to conduct methods and work in the field of their collaborators.

Experimental Methods Interdisciplinary Nature of the Research Team This project integrated students into a field of study that was beyond their current realm of expertise, aiming to improve dialogue and understanding between science and policy. Students worked collaboratively within this team to reach a goal (obtaining and disseminating results), which encouraged the growth of beneficial hard and soft skills, including, but not limited to, conducting research in an experiential and quantitative fashion, communicating technical information both orally and in writing, and working in real world, modern conditions in their respective fields. Via their external advisor, GreenLaw, students interacted with professionals outside of the college, to see the operation of environmental law and advocacy groups first-hand, as well as to make contacts with professionals having similar interests and goals. Although it is possible for the SST and SLA aspects of this program to stand alone, the interdisciplinary nature of the program allowed students and faculty to gain experience with environmental chemistry analyses while simultaneously engaging in an upper level policy analysis. Collaboration with outside groups also added an additional component of community engagement that encouraged the development of professional soft skills outside of the typical college setting. Importantly, students with different academic backgrounds worked together to solve a complex problem relating to their community. The team consisted of seven students from three different disciplinary backgrounds. Two students were 29


majoring in biochemistry, one in environmental science, and four were political science majors concentrating in legal studies. The political science majors had very limited knowledge regarding the science needed to inform policymakers nor were they experienced with lab work. The biochemistry students, however, were unaware of the policy implications related to the work they often performed in the lab. For the environmental studies student, the interdisciplinary nature of the project helped to consolidate the knowledge learned inside the classroom with actual fieldwork and lab experience.


EJSCREEN Seven sites were chosen for analysis, with each student choosing a site to research. This format gave students “ownership” over the data collection and analysis specific to their site. Students used the EJSCREEN tool, a publically available database provided through the U.S. EPA (38). EJSCREEN “allows users to access high-resolution environmental and demographic information for locations in the United States, and compare their selected locations to the rest of the state, EPA region, or the nation (38).” It should be noted that screening-level tools, such as EJSCREEN, are limited in scope and data, and therefore, do not determine the existence or absence of environmental justice concerns in a specific geographic location (38). Thus, this project used EJSCREEN to select possible sites of inquiry and then followed with subsequent chemical measurements and demographic analyses. Students investigated the demographic distributions of several possible sites, but also investigated the predicted air pollution environmental indicators provided by EJSCREEN such as, particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5), the national air toxics assessment (NATA) diesel PM, and NATA air toxics cancer risk. These are described as follows: • • •

PM2.5 (annual average concentration, µg/m3, calculated from a combination of air quality monitoring sources); NATA Diesel PM (concentration of diesel PM estimated in µg/m3); and NATA Air Toxics Cancer Risk (estimated lifetime inhalation cancer risk using emissions estimated from the National Emission Inventory (NEI));

Sampling sites in the Atlanta metropolitan region were chosen based on these environmental indicators, as well as, several demographic parameters listed below (38): •

•

•

Percent low income: The percent of people in a location living in households where the income is less than or equal to twice the indicated federal poverty level; Percent minority population: The percent of people in a location who have listed their racial status as something other than white and/or list their ethnicity as Hispanic or Latino; and Percent linguistic isolation: The percent of individuals in a location living in a household in which all household members older than 13 speak a 30


non-English language and also speak English less than what is considered very well. Data for these demographic parameters for each site are listed below in Table 2.


Table 2. Demographic data obtained for each site from EJSCREEN (38) Site ID

% Low income

% Minority

%Linguistically Isolated

A

15

19

0

B

24

90

0

C

49

63

6

D

54

87

11

E

77

66

9

F

27

38

12

G

36

16

0

Students were required to contact sites to gain permissions to hang samplers. This included providing a description of the proposed project, details of samplers, timelines, etc. The calls also allowed students to practice discussing the importance of the reasons behind their work, thus increasing the awareness of environmental justice issues in the state of Georgia. Selected sites for hanging samplers included several elementary schools, a science nature reserve, several Georgia Environmental Protect Division sampling sites, and a private residence.

Passive Air Samplers and Laboratory Techniques For this pilot study, students’ initial focus included atmospheric PAHs. The study aimed to quantify gas-phase concentrations of the 16 PAHs listed on the U.S. EPA Priority Pollutant List (39). PAH sources include incomplete combustion processes such as vehicle (diesel) emissions, residential activity and industrial heating (40). PAHs have shown mutagenic properties in bacterial and mammalian assays, and are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as probable human carcinogens (41–43). Combined with their tendency to bioaccumulate, PAHs pose risks to both environmental organisms and humans (44). Table 3 lists the analyte PAHs measured in this study, their associated abbreviations, molecular structures and internal standards of quantitation.

31 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


Table 3. List of analyte PAHs (including abbreviations and molecular structures) measured in this study



Passive air samplers (PAS) were used in this study to measure the concentration of PAHs at each site. These samplers, characterized and used in many previous studies of ambient concentrations of gas-phase persistent organic pollutants, are low cost and require no power during sampling, and have not yet been deployed in the Atlanta metropolitan region. The PAS (Tisch Environmental; Cleves, OH) have been thoroughly characterized and their method of operations previously described (45, 46). In brief, the PAS includes a polyurethane foam disk (PUF, ½” height x 5 ½” diameter; part number TE-0114) held inside of a stainless steel dome used for protection against precipitation, deposition of particulate matter, UV light, and the influence of wind speed (47). They operate based on the air-side mass transfer coefficient and the PUF-air partitioning coefficient of each analyte (45), and thus, require no outside power source for a pump, are quiet and non-invasive, and are a relatively inexpensive way to increase spatial resolution of gas-phase PAH concentrations. PAS are ideal for this type of study, in which spatial resolution of samples is important, compared to traditional samples methods (such as high volume air samplers), because PAS allows for simultaneous measurements at several different sites at a time, generally prohibited with tradition sampling methods due to high cost and person-hours needed to change sampling media. Similar PAS systems have been used in several large-scale studies to measure atmospheric PAH concentrations (46–52).

Figure 3. PAS deployed at Site C using non-invasive measures (zip ties and hose clamps). Prior to deployment, sample domes (Figure 3) were cleaned with acetone and PUFs were pre-cleaned via Soxhlet extraction in a 50/50 acetone and hexane mixture (Fisher Scientific, Optima) for 24 hours. Samplers were deployed at sites selected by students starting in January 2017, and hung at heights ranging from 166 cm – 182 cm to represent a ‘human height’ exposure concentration. Dates of deployment ranged from January 10, 2017 to March 17, 2017. Preliminary analyses estimated the average sampling rate of these samples to be 5.0 m3d-1 (46, 47, 51, 52). Table 4 shows deployment characteristics for each site. 33 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


Table 4. Deployment characteristics for each site Site

Latitude

Longitude

Site Type

Date Deployed

Total # Sample Days

A

34.075402°

-83.87047°

School

1/17/2017

37.0

B

33.571235°

-84.61902°

School

1/10/2017

51.9

C

33.828622°

-84.11447°

Residential

2/4/2017

31.0

D

33.963097°

-84.06922°

GA EPD

1/11/2017

54.0

E

34.299359°

-83.8134°

GA EPD

1/13/2017

41.9

F1, F2

34.257762°

-83.84541°

Forested

1/13/2017

42.0

G

33.729485°

-84.37091°

Residential

2/4/2017

40.8

Method blank extracts were collected by subjecting clean PUFs to the same laboratory and analytical procedures as sample PUFs. Two field blanks were collected by packaging clean PUFs in aluminum foil, plastic bags and mason jars, transporting them to the sampling site in the same manner as the sample PUFs, placing the field blank PUFs in the stainless domes for approximately one minute, and then storing under similar conditions as sample PUFs until extraction and analysis. It should be noted that the only site where replicates were measured was Site F (samples F1/F2). All PUFs were stored in aluminum foil, plastic bags, and mason jars at 30°C until extractions were performed. PUFs were spiked with a mix of deuterated internal standards (NAP-d8, ANT-d10, FLA-d10, and BaA-d12, Supelco, TraceCERT) for quantitative purposes and Soxhlet extracted in 50/50 hexane/acetone (Fisher Scientific, Optima) mix for 24 hours. Samples were then concentrated under rotary evaporation and eluted through silica solid phase extraction (SPE) columns (Discovery DSC-Si, Sigma Aldrich) using a 50/50 mixture of hexane and dichloromethane (DCM, Fisher Scientific, Optima) mix. Extracts were brought to a final volume of ~ 200 µL using nitrogen flow (53). All PUF extracts were analyzed with gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC-MS) using a Shimadzu QP2010S, operated with EI ionization and SIM mode. Samples were injected at 280° C in splitless mode, and separations were completed on a 30 m x 250 µm i.d. (film thickness 0.25 µm) SHRXI-5 MS column (Shimadzu). The initial temperature of the column was held at 70°C for three minutes, and then increased at 20° min-1 to 315°C and held for 30 minutes. Retention times confirmed with a PAH mix standard solution (EPA 610 PAH mix, Supelco) and concentrations were calculated relative to the added deuterated internal standards.

Student Deliverables Blog Student reflection helps facilitate learning and keeps students fully engaged (54). It is therefore important to find ways that help students reflect on the material they learn. Blogs are a great tool for classroom use since they require students to 34 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


reflect on their work in a digital environment familiar to today’s student. Blogging also allows students to create an online portfolio that highlights their work that they can share with family, friends, potential graduate schools, and employers. As a result, this project required students keep a weekly blog updating the progress of the project and the specific work they performed. Students began their blog by summarizing the goals of the project and discussing the importance of investigating issues related to environmental justice. After the initial post, students shared their experience selecting site locations, the new skills they learned in the laboratory, the knowledge they gained related to environmental policy, their experience visiting site locations and placing the air samplers, as well as meeting with members of the community. In addition to reflections on their work, students also posted photographs and supplemental information to enhance the substance of their reflections. The result was a professional online portfolio useable to display skills and accomplishments when applying for graduate school or employment. Students also reflected on the experiences they had at their meeting with the external advisor, GreenLaw. Students not only discussed the substance of the meeting, but also reflected on how the classroom and laboratory work transferred to real world professional endeavors to solve issues of environmental justice. The connection with what they learned and how it applied to future career possibilities is particularly useful since it helps students see beyond the classroom experience to how these skills can transfer to their future career goals. Site Reports Students’ site reports made it easy to record and organize data for later analysis to determine what, if any, factors may contribute to the amount of pollution in an area where samplers were placed. The reports included basic geographic information, demographic statistics, and identification of polluting businesses and industry located in the area of sample placement. For this project, each student was assigned a particular location for which they generated the site report. The reports were divided into several sections. The first section covered basic location and geographic information about the sampler location. Demographic information, such as population levels, percentage of individuals in different minority groups, income levels, and education levels were included. In addition to basic demographic information, the report included a section to record health statistics of individuals living in the area. The third section of the report included information about area pollution. The percentile of PM2.5, NATA Diesel PM, and NATA RHI were estimated using the EJSCREEN information (38). Information about current and past industries that may contribute to pollution surrounding the sampler placement was also included. Details about these industries included the name and address of the business, the type of industry, and a summary of possible pollutants created by that particular industry. The final section of the report included the actual data collected from the air samplers placed in the field by the students. To gather information for the report, students conducted on-site visits to survey the geography of the area and determined present conditions where 35



samplers were placed. USGS and Google Maps were also used to learn more about the topography of the sampler location. An examination of municipal and county planning files as well as searches with local public agencies were checked for prior and current land usage and permits in the area. This information helped students locate current and past polluting industries. The Health Department provided statistics about the health of individuals within a county, though this information proved to be more difficult to find for most students, and was not spatially resolved to the level of our chemical measurements. Demographic information was primarily collected using statistics provided by the EJSCREEN, but also compared to census data when available. In some cases, students gained information on history of a location through informal interactions with community members. For example, through interaction with community members in Gainesville, GA, students learned of the Newtown story and the Newtown Florist Club (55). The predominantly African American residents living in the Newtown neighborhood exist alongside 14 polluting industries within a 1-mile radius of their community. Members of this community have suffered from high incidences of lupus, and specific types of mouth, throat, and lung cancers. The Newton Florist Club is a grassroots organization that has organized to bring awareness to their fight for environmental justice. This is a community who has historically struggled with issues of environmental (in) justice and brings light to the complex nature of proving and solving these types of issues. These sources provided information for the environmental justice struggles of a community less than 30 miles from GGC, giving the students a local context with respect to the need of sound measurements and policies regarding environmental justice. When site reports were completed, students met to discuss their findings and analyze the results. They also shared their reports on their individual blogs. Not only were the reports useful for helping students organize the data they needed to collect for analyzing the sampler results and drawing conclusions about the sources of pollution and its impacts, but they also provided a deliverable that students can share with potential employers and graduate schools. Presentations and Outreach Students took part in multiple presentations during the project. The first was given to the community-based external advisor, GreenLaw. At this meeting, students were hosted for the morning at the non-profit environmental law firm in downtown Atlanta. Students met with several attorneys and interns to discuss the project and relevant environmental justice case law, history, and current policies existing in Georgia. Students provided a formal presentation to the attorneys, sharing the overall goal, project plan, and the research design they developed for this study. When completed, students received advice for improving their research design and discussed how collaboration would take place during the remainder of the project. Students were also invited to present at the 2016 Energy Symposium held at Georgia Gwinnett College. Although the focus of this event was energy security, the hosts felt the work the students were doing not only related to the importance 36



of finding clean energy alternatives, but also wanted to highlight alternative means by which the topic of energy security can be taught. Specifically, students discussed the relationship of fossil fuels and air pollution and its impact on the health of individuals. They shared demographic data related to areas affected by air pollution, and argued that certain communities were disproportionately disadvantaged compared to others because of the current reliance on fossil fuels. After discussing their experimental design and hypotheses (since, at the time, data collection was not complete), the students discussed the benefits of clean renewable energy solutions and the greater impact it would have on those communities more likely to suffer from the externalities of fossil fuels. Not only was this experience beneficial because it helped students relate their project to larger environmental issues, but several prominent scholars, including a member from the United Nations, were present. Thus, students were able to network with professionals in academia as well as in high-level government positions, an experience not typically granted students in a traditional classroom setting. Two senior biochemistry students traveled to present preliminary results at the annual Spring American Chemical Society (ACS) meeting in San Francisco, CA. This was the first national meeting at which either student had either attended or presented. One of these students is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Chemistry at University of Georgia, and the other is in the process of applying for graduate school. In addition, the entire group of students presented at the annual Georgia Gwinnett College CREATE Symposium. The CREATE Symposium gave students an opportunity to share their work on the project with their fellow students as well as other faculty members on campus. During this presentation, students explained the purpose and goals of the EJ-CIP project. Most of the presentation, however, shared the results of the research and discussed the importance of the project to the Atlanta metropolitan region. The students also had the opportunity to communicate the goals and results of their project to middle-school age campers at the Elachee Nature Science Center during the summer of 2017. Two students from the project attended an afternoon of summer camp to lead a group of 12-14 campers in the activity of making Schoenbein paper. This relatively inexpensive activity allows participants to create their own colorimetric measurement of tropospheric ozone (considered a criteria pollutant by the EPA) using the oxidation of iodine (clear to purple/brown color change). This outreach activity allows for the discussion of the importance of air quality, the effects of air quality on the health of sensitive populations (children and elderly populations), and well as the introduction of environmental justice pertaining to air quality. In the future, the goal of such projects will be to hang PAS at elementary and middle schools, and have the students at such schools participate in ozone data collection using Schoenbein paper during the time that the PAS is hung on their property. This type of outreach collaboration will include K-12 students helping to collect semi-quantitative data in an active research project. Each of these presentations gave students an opportunity to not only share the project goals and results, but also their experience working on an interdisciplinary project and the benefits this type of collaborative approach had on their overall educational experience. In addition, students gained exposure presenting in a 37


professional setting and were able to network with business professionals as well as community and global leaders.

Preliminary Data Generated by Undergraduates


PAHs quantified included NAP, ACY, ACE, FLU, PHEN, ANT, FLA, PYR, BaA, CHR, B(b+k)F, B(a)P, I123P + DBA, and BgP. Separation of 14 out of 16 analyzed PAHs were achieved with the method, with B(b)- and B(k)F reported as a sum of the two isomers, as well as I123P and DBA. Retention times of analytes in sample extracts were confirmed by retention times of standards (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Chromatograms of standard PAH mixture (top), and site A extract (bottom). Peaks are labeled according to Table 3 with (-dx) representing a peak of a deuterated internal standard.



Preliminary results from the analysis of six sites in the Atlanta metropolitan region regarding total PAH concentrations using PAS techniques are shown in Figure 5. While statistical analysis of variance could not be performed on single samples (replicates were only measured at one site), upon initial analysis, concentrations of PAHs at site A were two times greater than the average concentration of all other sites. This sampler was hung on a fence bordering the parking lot of an elementary school, where it was thought that buses idled prior to loading students for transport at the end of each school day. Although a height of 166 cm was used to approximate exposure for an average adult, it may not havee allowed for complete mixing of an air parcel prior to sampling. As a result, the data for this site was considered as an outlier and was not used in the combined chemical concentration and demographic analysis (shown in Figure 7).

Figure 5. Total PAH concentrations (pg m-3) for six sites in the Atlanta metropolitan region. Samples F1 and F2 represent replicate samplers hung at site F. These were the only replicate samples taken during this pilot project. Replicate samples at F1 and F2 demonstrated a small amount of variability, showing the importance for providing replicates at each sampling site. Upon analysis of the distribution of PAHs at each site, preliminary analysis shows differing compositions of the samples for different sites (Figure 6). The most prominent PAH in each sample was PHEN, followed by varying contributions from FLU, FLA, PY, and ACE. Preliminary analysis notes that Site F, our most forested site (Elachee Nature Science Center) contained more ACE than other sites, and Sites B and C have similar PAH profiles, despite being located over 40 miles from one another. It should also be noted that several semi-volatile and non-volatile PAHs were measured with the PAS. Although these sampling devices operate based on partitioning of analytes between the gas- and PUFphases, it has been shown previously that particulate matter can be collected (46, 56). The difference in distributions of PAHs amongst sites suggests that further investigation is needed into source differences or distances from sources (photodegradation during atmospheric transport). 39



Figure 6. Distribution of PAHs for Site A (top left), Site F (top right), Site B (bottom left) and Site C (bottom right). PAHs that appear in over five percent are represented structurally, according to pie chart color. Students compared total sum of PAHs (pg m-3) to the demographic information collected at each site for a preliminary environmental (in)justice analysis. Preliminary regression analysis gives the respective coefficients of determination shown in Figure 7. However, possibly due to our small number of samples (n = 6 in this analysis) and the lack of replicate measurements, the data shown in Figure 7 are inconclusive to the presence or absence of environmental (in)justices regarding PAHs (p > 0.05). Therefore, these correlations can be considered insignificant with respect to this study. However, this preliminary analysis is meant to demonstrate a proof of concept that these PAS could be used to increase spatial resolution of HAP concentrations on a large scale, thus increasing the strength of the dataset for exposure to the chemicals for different communities. For future studies containing a higher number of sampling sites (n > 50), sample sites should not only vary in demographic parameters, but also in distance from freeways and point-source contributions. Higher resolution GIS measurements should also be used for more conclusive interpretation of results.

Influence of Interdisciplinary Community-Based Research on Student Outcomes Students (n = 7) were presented with a survey of attitudinal opinions using an experience gains scale with question styles modeled after the survey of undergraduate research experiences (SURE) (57). The students were presented with the survey approximately six months after the conclusion of the project and all seven students responded to the survey. Of these students, 71.4% had not previously participated in an undergraduate research project at GGC, 42.9% 40 Roberts-Kirchhoff and Benvenuto; Environmental Chemistry: Undergraduate and Graduate Classroom, Laboratory, and Local ... ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2018.


were from the SST and 57.1% were from the SLA. Students were asked to rate different parameters based on their experience during the EJ-CIP project as either a negative change, no change, small positive change, moderate positive change, or large positive change. The results from this survey are displayed in Table 5.

Figure 7. Correlation plots showing relationships between total sum of PAH concentration for each site as a function of % minority population (top), % low income (middle), and % linguistic isolation (bottom).


Table 5. Results of student survey after EJ-CIP participation % Participant Response


Parameter assessed Perception that scientific inquiry can be applied in everyday life

71.4% Large change 28.6% Moderate change

Understanding of how scientists work on real issues/problems

57.2% Large change 28.5% Moderate change 14.3% Small change

Perception that research questions can be successfully applied to address community issues


Confidence in your laboratory techniques

71.4% Large change 14.3% Moderate change 14.3% Small change

Confidence in communicating with researchers outside of your major


Confidence in working on a project in which some areas are outside of your expertise


Ability to work as part of a collaborative group


Understanding of the history of environmental justice and current policies in place


The parameters that saw the greatest percent of students reporting a “large positive change” included: • • • •

Perception that research questions can be successfully applied to address community issues; Confidence in communicating with researchers outside of your major; Ability to work as part of a collaborative group; and Understanding of the history of environmental justice and current policies in place.

Thus, the survey suggests that goals were met with respect to increasing the knowledge of undergraduates that academic research can be applied to community issues, the confidence and ability of students to communicate and work outside of their areas of expertise, and increasing awareness of environmental justice history and issues in the state of Georgia. Students generally reported an increase change for all parameters given, with the exception of “understanding that scientific assertions require supporting evidence.” Several students, when asked to express additional comments on the project offered: •

“It gave me (a social science major) the ability to understand that in leadership positions where legislation is being implemented, it is very important to merge with other disciplines and majors to gain as much information as possible to make the best decisions;” 42


•

•


•

“The CIP made me realize the depth of work that can be done within the legal profession to help society at large. As a result, I am better able to focus more specifically on the type of legal career I wish to pursue”; “Working with other students with different majors, striving for the same goal was inspiring as well as educational;” and “So grateful to have been able to work with a team from varying degree programs.”

These comments suggest that the interdisciplinary nature of the project was well received by students, and encouraged them to persist throughout the term of the project. Based on these results, this project could be considered for implementation at other institutions interested in leveraging student interest in environmental and social issues to develop interdisciplinary research projects.

Future Goals Several students have suggested that this research project be offered as an official course, instead of just a faculty advised research project. The interdisciplinary nature of the project lends itself to the newly developed Environmental Science major here at GGC, which includes both a social science, and a natural science track. Political science students have also expressed an interest in participating in an official course such as this. They argue the active learning approach as well as the integration with other fields like chemistry help provide real world experiences that better connect the theories they study with their application. In continuing this project, it is expected to increase the sample number, number of replicates, and extend analyte analysis to include specific polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners. This theme will be used as a full semester long course integrated research project for the Environmental Science Capstone Course (ESNS 4900) offered at GGC in Spring 2018.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank our seven student researchers for their participation and energy put forth into this project. We would also like to thank Mr. Lee Irminger (Elachee Nature Science Center), Mr. Ken Buckley (GA Environmental Protection Division), Evoline C. West Elementary, and Duncan Creek Elementary School for their cooperation with hanging sampling devices. Special thanks to our external advisor, GreenLaw, for hosting our students and providing valuable feedback on their project plan. Faculty and support who were influential in discussing and promoting this project include Dr. Charles Pibel, Dr. Brian Etheridge, Dr. Aldolfo Santos, and Dr. Thomas Mundie. We thank the Georgia Gwinnett College Community Innovations Project program and the School of Science and Technology for funding. The results and contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the external advisors or collaborating partners. 43


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Community-Based Undergraduate Research: Measurement of

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