Compilation and Application of Japanese ... - ACS Publications

Environ. Sci. Technol. 2003, 37, 2005-2015

Compilation and Application of Japanese Inventories for Energy Consumption and Air Pollutant Emissions Using Input-Output Tables KEISUKE NANSAI* Endocrine Disruptors and Dioxin Research Project, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan YUICHI MORIGUCHI Social and Environmental Systems Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan SUSUMU TOHNO Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University, Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011, Japan

Preparing emission inventories is essential to the assessment and management of our environment. In this study, Japanese air pollutant emissions, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions categorized by approximately 400 sectors (as classified by Japanese input-output tables in 1995) were estimated, and the contributions of each sector to the total amounts were analyzed. The air pollutants examined were nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and suspended particulate matter (SPM). Consumptions of about 20 fossil fuels and five other fuels were estimated according to sector. Air pollutant emission factors for stationary sources were calculated from the results of a survey on air pollution prevention in Japan. Pollutant emissions from mobile sources were estimated taking into consideration vehicle types, traveling speeds, and distances. This work also counted energy supply and emissions from seven nonfossil fuel sources, including nonthermal electric power, and CO2 emissions from limestone (for example, during cement production). The total energy consumption in 1995 was concluded to be 18.3 EJ, and the annual total emissions of CO2, NOx, SOx, and SPM were, respectively, 343 Mt-C, 3.51 Mt, 1.87 Mt, and 0.32 Mt. An input-output analysis of the emission inventories was used to calculate the amounts of energy consumption and emissions induced in each sector by the economic final demand.

Introduction Preparing emission inventories is essential to the assessment and management of our environment. In the United States for instance, the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) reports the annual emission amounts of air pollutants such as NOx (nitrogen oxides), SOx (sulfur oxides), VOC (volatile organic compounds), and PM10 (particulate matter smaller * Corresponding author phone: +81 29-850-2889; fax: +81 29850-2880; e-mail: [email protected]. 10.1021/es0257669 CCC: $25.00 Published on Web 04/04/2003

 2003 American Chemical Society

than 10 µm in diameter) by detailed source category (1). The data are estimated by using results of emission monitoring, statistics, and other related data. Environment Canada (2) and the European Environmental Agency (3) also compile national emission inventories. However, at present, there are not enough data to prepare such an inventory for Japan. Nevertheless, the amounts of emissions can, in general, be estimated by using activity data and a corresponding emission factor. Furthermore, these emission inventories can also be used to make projections of emissions by calculating the changes in the activity amount and the emission factor accompanying economic growth, changes in industrial structure, introduction of new regulations, and so on. Input-output tables are useful tools for projection of emissions or analysis of the emission structure. In inputoutput tablessoriginated by Wassily Leontief, the 1973 Nobel laureate in economicssexchanges of goods and services among industrial sectors are presented in matrix form. Most of the tables actually available are specified in monetary units. For example, energy and resource flows among industries can be analyzed on the assumption that goods are transferred in direct proportion to their monetary value. Input-output tables have been frequently applied to analyses of environmental issues, including attempts by Leontief himself (4). Methods for calculating the energy that is consumed to produce a final product, including indirect consumption by upstream industries such as the component and material industries, are known as energy analyses (e.g., refs 5 and 6). In Japan, a number of extensive energy analyses were performed around 1980 (7-9). After study of the energy analyses, input-output tables have been applied to environmental analyses in a number of studies (e.g., refs 10 and 11). However, few studies consider factors other than energy consumption and CO2 emission, owing to the difficulty in estimating the emissions of other pollutants in Japan. In this study, Japanese air pollutant emissions, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions are estimated in detail by the approximately 400 sectors classified by the Japanese input-output tables (12) (hereafter, the Input-Output Tables), and the contribution of each sector to the total amount is analyzed. Considering the availability of reliable technical data reflecting the present state of Japanese technology and the availability of suitably prepared statistics, only emissions of NOx, SOx, and suspended particulate matter (SPM) were calculated in this study. The causes of these environmental burdens as they relate to economic demand in Japan were analyzed by using the Input-Output Tables to calculate the indirect environmental burdens of each sector; in other words, the energy consumption and emissions induced by economic final demand of each sector. This emission inventory based on the Input-Output Tables not only can demonstrate the structure of energy consumption and emissions but also can provide useful information for other environmental studies. For instance, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is commonly utilized to evaluate the environmental burdens of a product, technology, or social system. It is possible to apply the embodied intensitiess which are calculated here for the structural analysis of the induced energy consumption and emissionssto the life cycle inventory data in an LCA (13-17).

Materials and Methods Estimation Process. The latest Input-Output Tables (12) were used to estimate energy consumption and emissions. The estimation process is illustrated in Figure 1. The InputOutput Tables for the basic sector classification consist of VOL. 37, NO. 9, 2003 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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FIGURE 1. Process for calculating energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and air pollutant emissions in each sector. 519 rows and 403 columns in a rectangular matrix form. For analysis of the emissions structure, several intermediate sectors in the Input-Output Tables were consolidated to convert the matrix into a perfectly square matrix with 399 rows and 399 columns. Next, for each of the 400 sectors (the 399 sectors of the consolidated Input-Output Table plus the “consumption expenditure of households” sector, which is one of the final demand sectors), various statistics and source materials were used to estimate gross consumptions, expressed as a physical amount for each sector, of 6 coal-based fuels, 12 petroleum-based fuels, 3 natural gas-based fuels, and 5 other fuels. The Tables of Values and Quantities (12) attached to the Input-Output Tables were the main source of data on consumption of these fuels; however, some of the values include large errors due to the characteristics of the method of their estimation. Those errors were corrected by using other publicly available statistics and a questionnaire survey. This paper describes the method of correcting the consumptions of the main fuels in more detail later. Next, the net contribution rate to each examined environmental burden was set for each combination of fuel type and sector, excluding consumption of fuel to be converted into another fuel type (secondary energy) or used as feedstock, and which accordingly was not a direct cause of the burden. Consumption of fuels contributing to environmental load was obtained by multiplying the gross fuel consumption by the net contribution rate and calorific value (summarized in Table 1) for each fuel. This allowed calculation by fuel type. Energy supply from nonthermal power generation sources was also taken into account. Emissions of CO2 were calculated by multiplying the obtained energy consumption for each fuel type by its corresponding CO2 emission factor as shown in Table 1. 2006

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Furthermore, CO2 emissions from limestone, such as during cement production, were counted. Emissions of NOx, SOx, and SPM were classified into either those from stationary sources or those from mobile sources. Emissions from stationary sources were obtained by multiplying the energy consumption by the emission factor, taking into account the removal technologies used in Japan for denitrification, desulfurization, and dust collection. In addition, NOx emissions from electric furnaces, SOx from nonferrous ores, and SPM from incineration of agricultural biowastes (open burning) were taken into consideration as emissions originating from nonfossil fuels. Emissions from mobile sources, especially from automobiles, were estimated in detail on the basis of vehicle type and driving conditions. For SPM, this estimate included emissions from tire wear as a nonfuel emission source for automobiles. However, SPM in these estimates took into account only primary particles (those which are originally generated as particles), not secondary particles (those which form from gaseous-phase substances through the action of atmospheric chemical reactions). Finally, energy consumption and pollutant emissions by source were totaled for each of the 400 sectors in the InputOutput Tables. Due to limitations of space, methods for estimating consumptions of only specific fuels and resources are explained in this paper; details of estimations for the other fuels and resources are described in the Supporting Information. Estimation of Coal-Based Fuel Consumption. Coal-based fuel in this study includes coking coal, steam coal, coke, coke oven gas (COG), blast furnace gas (BFG), and Linz-Donawitz Gas (LDG). The main data on consumption of these fuels are included in the Tables of Values and Quantities mentioned

TABLE 1. Calorific Value and CO2 Emission Factor by Type of Fuel and Other Resources fuel and resource name

calorific value GJ unit

coking coal 28.9 steam coal, lignite, and 26.6 a anthracite coke 30.1 coke oven gas (COG) 21.1 blast furnace gas (BFG) 3.4 Linz-Donawitz gas (LDG) 8.4 crude oil 38.2 fuel oil A 39.1 fuel oils B and C 41.7 kerosene 36.7 diesel oil 38.2 gasoline 34.6 jet fuel 36.7 naphtha 34.1 petroleum-based 44.9 hydrocarbon gas hydrocarbon oil 42.3 petroleum coke 35.6 liquefied petroleum gas 50.2 (LPG) natural gas, LNG 54.5 mains gas 41.1 black liquor 12.6 waste wood 16.7 waste tires 33.9 municipal waste 8.8 industrial waste 12.6 nuclear power generation 3600 hydro and other power 3600 generation limestone (emission per t) a

CO2 emission factor t-C/GJ

t t

0.0250 0.0243

t 1000 Nm3 1000 Nm3 1000 Nm3 kL kL kL kL kL kL kL kL 1000 Nm3

0.0294 0.0110 0.0294 0.0294 0.0189 0.0193 0.0194 0.0186 0.0189 0.0182 0.0182 0.0178 0.0124

kL t t

0.0210 0.0254 0.0164

t 1000 Nm3 t (dry) t (dry) t t t GWh GWh

0.0140 0.0143 0.0257 0.0210 0.0218 0.0082 0.0241

0.120

Counted as one type of fuel due to limitation of statistics.

above. The consumptions in the Tables were compared with those in the other main statistics (e.g., Supply-Demand Statistics (18) and Energy Balance Tables (19)). In cases where values were similar among the statistics, the values in the Tables of Values and Quantities were generally used. Coking Coal. In the Tables of Values and Quantities for 1995, the domestic distribution of coking coal appears to be about 73.15 Mt. However, this figure is not consistent with the other statistics. For example, the figure in the SupplyDemand Statistics is 65.41 Mt and that in the Energy Balance Tables is 67.2 Mt. Because the values in the Supply-Demand Statistics and the Energy Balance Tables are similar, it was thought that the Tables of Values and Quantities overestimate the domestic distribution of coking coal. This is a result of different definitions of coking coal being used. Imports of coking coal in the Tables of Values and Quantities are quoted from the Trading Report (20), where some noncoking coal is also dealt with in part as coking coal, resulting in the observed difference from other statistics. Accordingly, the definition stated in the Tables of Values and Quantities was not applied to this worksit was assumed here that coking coal was consumed only in the iron- and steel-related sectors and in the gas supply sector (for coke production) and that coking coal was not used in other sectors. Thus, the consumption of coking coal in each sector was determined as follows. For the “coal products” sector, 57.69 Mt of coking coal consumption, as stated in the SupplyDemand Statistics, was adopted. For the “pig iron” sector, 6.36 Mt was assumed, which is the remaining 2.5 Mt consumption of steam coal in the “pig iron” sector deducted from the 8.86 Mt of coal consumption specified in the Steel Statistics (21) as the total of coal used for coke making plus

coal used for purposes other than coke making. For the other iron and steel product sectors, the consumption of coking coal was estimated as 0.81 Mt, which was calculated by subtracting the 8.86 Mt of coal consumption in the “pig iron” sector and the 0.85 Mt of coking coal consumption for onsite power generation in the iron- and steel-related sectors from the 10.52 Mt of coal consumption for steel and iron specified in the Steel Statistics. The coking coal consumption for onsite power generation (0.85 Mt) was also quoted from the Steel Statistics and added to the “onsite power generation” sector. Within the other iron- and steel-related sectors, the 0.81 Mt was proportionally allocated using the producer prices specified in the Tables of Values and Quantities. The allocated price was the sum of the prices of coking coal and steam coal, since the input of steam coal to the iron- and steelrelated sectors specified in the Tables of Values and Quantities is regarded as input of coking coal. The amount of coking coal input to the “gas supply” sector for coke production was quoted from the Tables of Values and Quantities. Estimation of Petroleum-Based Fuel Consumption. In this study, petroleum-based fuel includes crude oil, fuel oil A, fuel oils B and C, kerosene, diesel oil, gasoline, jet fuel, naphtha, petroleum-based hydrocarbon gas, hydrocarbon oil, petroleum coke, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Fuel Oils B and C. A large difference in the distribution volumes of fuel oils B and C is shown owing to the different definitions used in each statistic. Although the statistics for domestic production are similars48.32 GL (gigaliters) in the Tables of Values and Quantities, 49.25 GL in the SupplyDemand Statistics, and 48.21 GL in the Energy Balance Tablessthere is a large difference with the statistics for exports. Notably, the export volume is larger in the Energy Balance Tables owing to the difference in handling of bonded oil (oil which is tax-deferred for a period of time). Fuel oils B and C are mostly supplied to oceangoing vessels, which are divided into two types: Japanese flag-carrying vessels or foreign flag-carrying vessels. In the Tables of Values and Quantities and the Supply-Demand Statistics, bonded oil supplied to Japanese flag-carrying oceangoing vessels is not added as a bonded export; only that supplied to foreign flagcarrying vessels is added. On the other hand, in the Energy Balance Tables, all fuel oils categorized as bonded are regarded as exports, causing this difference. According to the definition of the “ocean transport” sector in the Input-Output Tables, which corresponds to the relevant activity of oceangoing vessels, all activities of oceangoing vessels with Japanese flags are treated as domestic production. Therefore, supplying bonded oil to Japanese flagcarrying vessels is regarded as domestic distribution, and only the supply of bonded oil to foreign flag-carrying vessels is regarded as export. Fuel oils B and C that are added to the “ocean transport” sector include oil supplied to Japanese vessels at ports both in Japan and abroad and oil supplied to chartered vessels. Oil supplied at foreign ports is also added as an import in the Tables of Values and Quantities. The Tables of Values and Quantities show a consumption of 61.77 GL of fuel oils B and C in the “ocean transport” sector. Calculation of consumption corresponds to that of bonded oil, which has a lower price than the domestic version, but uses the same average unit price as domestic oil. Therefore, the amount of fuel in the Tables of Values and Quantities is obviously underestimated. This fact was confirmed by directly asking related industries. Supply to sectors other than the “ocean transport” sector are 42.35 GL in the Energy Balance Tables and 42.63 GL in the Supply-Demand Statistics, compared to 46.93 GL in the Tables of Values and Quantities, a relatively higher figure. In this study, total consumption was adjusted, and consumption in the major sectors was corrected as follows. First, 131.67 GL (the sum of the domestic supply of 55.70 GL VOL. 37, NO. 9, 2003 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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and foreign supply of 75.97 GL) was taken as the total fuel oil consumption in the “ocean transport” sector, based on the data presented by the marine transport industry association (22). Then, since the consumption of 23.30 GL in the “electric power for enterprise use” sector in the Tables of Values and Quantities is much higher than those presented in the other statistics, the value was corrected to 18.53 GL according to the Outlook for Electric Supply and Demand (23, 24). After this adjustment, the total domestic supply, excluding the “ocean transport” sector, became about 42.15 GL, down from the 46.93 GL written in the Tables of Values and Quantities. This is very similar to the 42.35 GL in the Energy Balance Tables and the 42.63 GL in the SupplyDemand Statistics. Consumption of fuel oils B and C in the “petroleum refinery products” sectors specified in the Tables of Values and Quantities is smaller than that in the oil-refining sector in the Energy Balance Tables. In the “petroleum refinery products” sector, imports account for most of the input of fuel oils B and C. With imported articles, because the amount of imported goods (defined as “special trade” in the Tables of Values and Quantities) is calculated using the unit price of “ordinary trade” and subsequently allocated to each sector, the value depends on the exporting country and is thus subject to exchange-rate fluctuations, causing a large difference from other statistics. Therefore, the more likely value of 2.03 GL (which is specified as “own use & losses” of “energy conversion & own use” in the Energy Balance Tables) was used for consumption in the “petroleum refinery products” sector. The difference of 21.59 GL between the abovementioned domestic supply of 42.15 GL and the total consumption of the “petroleum refinery products” sector (2.03 GL) plus the “electric power for enterprise use” sectors (18.53 GL) was proportionally allocated to other sectors, in proportion to the consumptions noted in the Tables of Values and Quantities. Kerosene. If the value in the Tables of Values and Quantities were used for kerosene consumption in each sector, it would generate a large error in the consumption of the “petroleum refinery products” sector. The input amount, especially the imported amount, of kerosene to the “petroleum refinery products” sector is overestimated, resulting in too high a value in the Tables of Values and Quantities. In Japan, imported kerosene, diesel oil, and gasoline are re-refined in the “petroleum refinery products” sector to meet domestic standards. This temporary input increases the input amount in the “petroleum refinery products” sector, causing the increase in value in the Tables of Values and Quantities. This can be confirmed by the fact that the input of kerosene into the “petroleum refinery products” sector is similar to that of ordinary imports in the Tables of Values and Quantities. Therefore, for net consumption in the “petroleum refinery products” sector, the value for “own use & losses” of “energy conversion & own use” in the Energy Balance Tables was used, and the consumption obtained by deducting this value from the domestic supply in the Tables of Values and Quantities was reallocated on the basis of the value in each sector in the Tables of Values and Quantities. LPG. LPG for automobile and household use is more expensive than that used by industry, because of its higher tax rate and less efficient mode of supply. However, because the Tables of Values and Quantities are prepared on the basis of the averaged unit price, a large difference arises between the calculated value and actual value. The unit price of LPG produced as a primary product is higher than that of LPG produced as a byproduct because, although the unit price of byproduct LPG is similar to that of LPG for industrial use only, the unit price of primary-product LPG is greatly influenced by the high tax added to the price of LPG used for automobiles. However, in the Tables of Values and 2008

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Quantities, the average unit price of all primary-product LPG, including that for nonautomobile use, is used as the unit price of LPG for automobiles. Accordingly, the unit price of LPG for automobiles in the Tables is lower than the actual unit price. This results in overestimated consumption of LPG in the transport-related sectors and excessively underestimated consumption in the other sectors. To correct this problem, LPG consumption was divided into seven types of industrial use according to the SupplyDemand Statistics. However, because it was difficult to accurately match the activity ranges of three of these types of use (“for chemical feedstock,” “for industrial use,” and “for steel and iron”) to any of the seven types of use represented by the sectors in the Input-Output Tables, these three use types were integrated into the single use type “for aggregated industrial use.” Thus, the types of LPG use were classified into “for aggregated industrial use,” “for automobiles,” “for mains gas production,” “for electric power generation,” and “as household fuel”. The total consumption of 19.78 Mt was proportionally allocated to the corresponding sectors in the Input-Output Tables based on the producer price. The price of byproduct LPG (input) was also included in the producer price for allocation, but the price of byproduct LPG (output), which has a negative value in the Input-Output Tables, was disregarded. The results of a questionnaire survey to the office compiling the Input-Output Tables confirmed that the byproduct LPG in the Input-Output Tables meant a petroleum-based hydrocarbon gas; the amount of byproduct LPG was estimated by multiplying the input of naphtha to the “petrochemical basic products” sector by a factor of 0.188 (the rounded-off version of 0.185 appears in the Tables of Values and Quantities). Since the consumption of petroleum-based hydrocarbon gas was counted independently, it is logically appropriate to exclude the price of byproduct LPG from the allocation price. However, in the Tables of Values and Quantities, LPG consumption was divided into input of byproduct LPG and input of primary-product LPG for convenience in maintaining consistency with production. Specifically, total output price of byproduct LPG was calculated by multiplying the physical output of byproduct LPG in the “petrochemical basic products” sector as described above by the average unit LPG price for industrial use. Allocating it to the appropriate sectors in which byproduct LPG was consumed then gives the byproduct LPG input price in each sector. The input price divides total LPG input price, which originally was set at a single value, into primaryproduct LPG price and byproduct LPG price. Accordingly, it is difficult to conclude that these prices for LPG and petroleum-based hydrocarbon gas are realistic. Therefore, LPG consumption in each sector was determined by allocating the consumption by use type, according to the sum of primary-product and byproduct LPG input prices in the sector. Estimation of Natural-Gas-Based Fuel and Other Fuel Consumptions. Natural gas, liquefied natural gas, mains gas, black liquor, waste wood, waste tires, municipal waste, and industrial waste correspond to this fuel category. Definition of the Net Contribution Rate. Fossil fuels are consumed not only for energy use but also for nonenergy uses such as for raw materials in plastics manufacture. To describe actual net flows of energy consumption, the consumption of fossil fuels as raw materials should be deducted and only their combustion as waste at the final stage counted. Fuels are converted to secondary fossil energy sources, such as coal for coking and crude oil refined into gasoline or diesel oil, according to use. This study calls these processes “energy conversion”. Energy consumption in each sector should be calculated according to the type and quantity

of fuel ultimately burned and should not include fuels used in energy conversion. The net contribution rate was defined as how the fuel consumption relates directly to environmental burden. Unity was given as the standard value, and zero was given to the net contribution rate of fuels consumed for energy conversion or as raw materials. Some statistics, such as the Structural Statistics, also include fuel consumption for raw materials other than total consumption; therefore, these values can be used to calculate the net contribution rate. However, it is difficult to match up a specific activity sector in the InputOutput Tables with a specific industrial sector. Furthermore, the investigation range does not cover every factory in Japan. Because these problems can cause difficulties in determining representative values of the net contribution rate, only zero or unity is given as the net contribution rate. Calculation of Energy Consumption. Direct energy consumption hi in sector i is the sum of energy consumption hi,k of fuel k, which is calculated by multiplying consumption mi,k of fuel k by calorific value qk and the net contribution rate ri,k:

hi )

∑h

i,k

)

k

∑q r

k i,kmi,k

(1)

k

Here, the calorific value qk based on the HHV (Higher Heating Value) (25-27) was used, as shown in Table 1. This study did not count heat value from incineration of municipal and industrial waste as direct energy consumption, because of the difficulty of determining energy use amount as a heat value by sector. Electric power supply from nonthermal power generation was converted at 3600 GJ/GWh. Calculation of CO2 Emissions. Since CO2 removal technologies are now being researched but are not in common use, the amount of CO2 emissions was determined by multiplying the energy consumption for each fuel in each sector by its respective CO2 emission factor as shown in eq 2. Nonfossil-fuel-based CO2 emissions, which are produced by utilizing limestone (e.g., in cement manufacturing) were also considered

Di )

∑f h

k i,k

(2)

k

where Di is direct CO2 emission in sector i, fk is the CO2 emission factor for fuel k, and hi,k is the energy consumption for fuel k in sector i. In the case of limestone as fuel k, energy consumption hi,k is given as the amount of material (t). Table 1 shows the CO2 emission factor (26-32) for each fuel used in the estimation. Because black liquor and waste wood are biomass resources, they were not counted in the calculations of CO2 emissions in each sector, although their CO2 emission factors are given. Also, emission factors for municipal and industrial wastes include only CO2 emissions originating from nonbiomass waste. Air Pollutant Emissions from Stationary Sources. Equipment for removing NOx, SOx, and SPM emissions is installed at most stationary sources in Japan. In many industries, denitrification equipment and low NOx burners are utilized, and desulfurization equipment and dust collectors are installed. Although, like CO2, these air pollutants are generated by the combustion of fossil fuels, because the types of air pollutants and the efficiencies of the removal technologies vary depending on the industry and combustion facilities, it is impossible to use simple fuel-based emission factors to estimate the actual emission amounts. In this study, the emission factors by fuel, industry, and furnace type that were calculated from the results of the Investigation for Management of Air Pollutant emissions (MAP investigation) (27, 33) were mainly used for stationary

sources. These factors allow the estimation of values close to the actual emissions, since they accurately reflect the distribution and efficiency of denitrification, desulfurization, and dust-removal technologies. Air pollutants from stationary sources also include emissions from nonfossil fuels. For example, NOx is generated in electric furnaces used to melt scrap iron, SOx is generated in the refining process of nonferrous metals by oxidization of sulfur present in metal ore, and SPM is generated during open burning of waste agricultural biomass. Values for these specific emission sources were also estimated. Air pollutant emissions from fuel combustion in stationary sources were obtained by multiplying the energy consumption for each fuel by the emission fact or for stationary sources

pi,k ) f ′ i,khi,k

(3)

where pi,k is the amount of air pollutant emission from fuel k in sector i, f ′i,k represents the emission factor adjusted for the efficiency of removal technologies in that sector, and hi,k is energy consumption. In the case of nonfossil fuels, emissions were similarly estimated by multiplying their emission factors by the amounts of corresponding activity, such as the amounts of open burned straw and chaff. Air Pollutant Emissions from Mobile Sources. Automobiles, ships, trains, aircraft, agricultural machinery, and construction machinery were considered mobile sources. NOx and SPM emissions from shipping were calculated by using four types of emission factors according to vessel size. Automobiles are a major mobile emissions source; therefore, it is important to obtain a quantitative understanding of their emissions. Here, the method of calculating air pollutant emissions from automobiles is briefly described. Tire wear is a source of SPM emissions resulting from automobile use; therefore, this study also estimated the SPM amount by car type. Emissions from Automobiles. Emissions of NOx and SPM are not determined solely by fuel properties in the way that CO2 and SOx are. Amounts of SPM emissions depend on traffic density and traveling conditions. For example, dieselpowered cars emit large amounts of SPMs during acceleration. Parameters for actual traveling conditions and corresponding emission factors are necessary to accurately calculate NOx and SPM emissions. Following the method of a previous study (34), emission factors and driving mileages for each vehicle type were used to estimate emission amounts from automobiles categorized by range of traveling speed. The process of estimating NOx and SPM emissions is outlined in Figure 2. First, the vehicle kilometers traveled (number of vehicles × traveling distance (km) per vehicle) per year by road type, range of velocity, and vehicle type was determined using various road statistics (35, 36). Ranges of traveling speed on open roads and expressways were classified into g 3 km/h to < 5 km/h (3-5 km/h), 5-10 km/h, 10-15 km/h, 15-25 km/h, 25-40 km/h, 40-60 km/h, and 60-80 km/h. Seven vehicle types were assumed: subcompact cars, passenger cars (compact, midsize, and large), subcompact trucks, small trucks (including vans), medium and large trucks, buses, and special-purpose vehicles (e.g., emergency vehicles). In the Road Traffic Census, small trucks and vans are categorized separately, but in this research, traveling data for small trucks and vans were integrated into the small trucks category. Then, the vehicle kilometers traveled by range of velocity and vehicle type on expressways and open roads were aggregated. For each vehicle type, the percentages of range of traveling speed were calculated. Emission amounts of pollutants were calculated by using these percentages as follows. The representative mileage of each vehicle type was determined by averaging the mileages VOL. 37, NO. 9, 2003 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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FIGURE 2. Process for estimating NOx and SPM emissions from automobiles.

TABLE 2. Traveling Distance by Range of Traveling Speed by Vehicle Type traveling distance (× 106 km) by range of traveling speed speed range (km/h) vehicle type

3-5

passenger cars (compact, midsize, and large) small trucks (including vans) middle and large trucks buses special-purpose vehicles

5-10

10-15

15-25

25-40

40-60

60-80

total

49 53 69 7 16

Diesel Vehicles 193 773 163 620 162 552 22 80 39 133

22 315 20 452 37 826 966 6431

20 897 15 467 13 106 2086 3235

21 927 16 267 13 903 2204 3431

8209 9005 12 518 1403 2939

74 363 62 027 78 135 6768 16 224

subcompact cars passenger cars (compact, midsize, and large) subcompact trucks small trucks (including vans) middle and large trucks

19 208 26 22 0

Gasoline Vehicles 129 578 810 3246 177 800 68 259 1 2

4523 93 735 37 114 8539 151

15 820 87 778 21 547 6458 52

16 472 92 102 22 420 6792 55

1846 34 481 2451 3760 50

39 386 312 359 84 534 25 897 311

passenger cars (compact, midsize, and large)

13

LPG Vehicles 53 211

6085

5699

5979

2239

20 279

of vehicles for business and personal use in the 1995 Annual Report on Motor Vehicle Transport (37), the same year as the Input-Output Tables. Also, the traveling distance of each vehicle type by fuel type was calculated using the mileage and consumption of gasoline, diesel oil, and LPG for each vehicle type to determine the percentage of traveling distance by fuel type. The total mileage for each vehicle type in the 1995 Annual Report on Motor Vehicle Transport was divided proportionally into the three classes of fuel type (gasoline, diesel, and LPG) using the obtained percentages. Thus, the total traveling distance by vehicle type in the 1995 Annual Report on Motor Vehicle Transport could be adjusted to that by each vehicle type and fuel type. The obtained traveling distance by fuel type and vehicle type was allocated according to the percentage of range of traveling speed by vehicle type to provide the traveling distance by fuel type, vehicle type, and range of speed as shown in Table 2. 2010

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Pollutant emissions were calculated by multiplying these distances by the corresponding emission factor (34) by vehicle type and range of traveling speed. However, since the contribution of the fuel burned by gasoline- and LPGpowered vehicles to total SPM emissions is much smaller than that of diesel-powered vehicles, and since collecting data on emission factors by range of traveling speed was extremely difficult, a constant SPM emission factor independent of the traveling speed (38) was employed for the calculations. Tables 3 and 4 show, respectively, the NOx emission factors and SPM emission factors that were used for the calculations. To allocate the emissions to each sector of the Input-Output Tables, a number of vehicle types representative of each sector were chosen, and the emission amounts were allocated according to the corresponding amounts of fuel consumption.

TABLE 3. NOx Emission Factors by Range of Traveling Speed by Vehicle Type NOx emission factor (g/km) by range of traveling speed speed range (km/h) vehicle type

3-5


5-10

Diesel Vehicles 0.86 0.86 3.79 3.79 7.90 7.90 11.67 11.67 8.33 8.33

10-15

15-25

25-40

40-60

60-80

0.52 3.79 7.90 11.67 8.33

0.35 2.85 5.98 8.87 6.36

0.26 1.96 4.16 6.22 4.50

0.25 1.39 3.01 4.55 3.30

0.28 1.55 3.30 5.02 3.59


Gasoline Vehicles 0.21 0.21 0.36 0.36 0.89 0.89 1.21 1.21 2.95 2.95

0.21 0.24 0.89 1.21 2.95

0.20 0.18 0.83 1.02 2.58

0.20 0.14 0.82 0.94 2.42

0.22 0.14 0.90 1.09 2.72

0.26 0.17 1.18 1.71 3.94


LPG Vehicles 0.43 0.43

0.43

0.44

0.49

0.63

0.90

TABLE 4. SPM Emission Factors by Range of Traveling Speed by Vehicle Type SPM emission factor (g/km) by range of traveling speed speed range (km/h) vehicle type

3-5

5-10


Diesel Vehicles 0.049 0.03 0.167 0.125 1.125 0.777 1.281 0.894 0.787 0.543


Gasoline Vehicles 0.025a 0.01a 0.025a 0.063a 0.077a


LPG Vehicles 0.01b

a

10-15

15-25

25-40

40-60

60-80

0.021 0.102 0.615 0.71 0.428

0.016 0.085 0.521 0.6 0.361

0.015 0.073 0.463 0.525 0.319

0.016 0.071 0.443 0.494 0.307

0.021 0.087 0.457 0.509 0.326

Constant SPM emission factor (g/km) independent of traveling speed. b Constant SPM emission factor (g/km) independent of traveling speed.

TABLE 5. SOx Emission Factors for Mobile Sources by Fuel Type fuel type

sulfur content wt %

SOx emission factor kg/GJ

gasoline diesel oil fuel oil A fuel oils B and C LPG

0.04 0.13 0.78 2.89 0

0.0169 0.0533 0.3326 1.3526 0

The SOx emission factors in Table 5 were determined from the SO2-converted sulfur content (39, 40) of each fuel and its calorific value, and the emission amounts were calculated from the emission factor and the energy consumption.

Results and Discussion Energy Consumption and Air Pollutant Emissions for Each Sector. This study surveyed the structure of direct energy consumption and air pollutant emissions in Japan from the viewpoint of sector and fuel type. For convenience of display, the 400 sectors examined in the study are consolidated into 17 sectors, and the energy consumption and emissions for each consolidated sector are shown (Table 6). The breakdown of each sector by fuel and resource type (coal-based fuel,

petroleum-based fuel, natural gas-based fuel, and others) is listed in Table 7. In addition, to analyze the causes of environmental burden from the viewpoint of Japanese economic demand, inputoutput analysis was used to calculate the proportion of total environmental burden induced by the economic final demand of each sector. Here, the method of calculating the induced environmental burden is only briefly explained (see the Supporting Information for more details). The total environmental burden generated in sector j can be defined as the sum of the direct burden during the production process and the indirect burden accompanying the intermediate inputs to the sector. In the case of a unit production in sector j, this relation, taking only domestic goods into consideration, can be expressed as eq 4

e pj ) (1 - m1)a1,je p1 + (1 - m2)a2,je p2 + ... + (1 - mj)aj,je pj + ... + (1 - mn)an,je pn + d pj ) n

∑(1 - m )a i

p i,je i

+ d pj (i ) 1,2, ..., j, ...n) (4)

i)1

where e pj indicates the embodied intensity, which means environmental burden p in sector j, generated directly or VOL. 37, NO. 9, 2003 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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TABLE 6. Direct Energy Consumption and Emissions by Sector in Japan (1995) energy

CO2

NOx

SOx

SPM

sector name

EJ

%

Mt-C

%

Mt

%

Mt

%

Mt

%

agriculture, forestry, and fisheries mining food textiles pulp, paper, and wooden products chemical products petroleum refineries and coal ceramic, stone, and clay products iron and steel nonferrous metals machinery and other products construction and real estate electric power, gas, and heat supply finance and trade transport communications and services households total

0.29 0.01 0.23 0.08 0.46 0.91 0.75 0.52 1.39 0.13 0.28 0.29 6.33 0.23 3.09 0.97 2.37 18.3

(2%) (0%) (1%) (0%) (3%) (5%) (4%) (3%) (8%) (1%) (2%) (2%) (35%) (1%) (17%) (5%) (13%)

5.6 0.2 4.1 1.4 5.6 16.2 12.1 23.8 37.4 2.5 5.1 5.4 103.2 4.2 57.7 17.3 41.4 343

(2%) (0%) (1%) (0%) (2%) (5%) (4%) (7%) (11%) (1%) (1%) (2%) (30%) (1%) (17%) (5%) (12%)

0.222 0.006 0.020 0.012 0.039 0.070 0.054 0.173 0.089 0.021 0.039 0.143 0.282 0.014 2.123 0.111 0.090 3.51

(6%) (0%) (1%) (0%) (1%) (2%) (2%) (5%) (3%) (1%) (1%) (4%) (8%) (0%) (61%) (3%) (3%)

0.123 0.001 0.049 0.017 0.051 0.073 0.047 0.033 0.065 0.018 0.030 0.016 0.245 0.033 0.973 0.071 0.024 1.87

(7%) (0%) (3%) (1%) (3%) (4%) (3%) (2%) (4%) (1%) (2%) (1%) (13%) (2%) (52%) (4%) (1%)

0.036 0.000 0.003 0.002 0.010 0.009 0.004 0.009 0.011 0.002 0.005 0.014 0.046 0.002 0.142 0.013 0.012 0.32

(11%) (0%) (1%) (1%) (3%) (3%) (1%) (3%) (3%) (1%) (1%) (4%) (14%) (0%) (45%) (4%) (4%)

TABLE 7. Direct Energy Consumption and Emissions in Each Sector in Japan by Fuel Type (1995)a energy (%)

CO2 (%)

NOx (%)

SOx (%)

sector name

coal petro

nat

oth

coal petro

nat

oth

coal petro

nat

oth

agriculture, forestry, and fisheries mining food textiles pulp, paper, and wooden products chemical products petroleum refineries and coal ceramic, stone, and clay products iron and steel nonferrous metals machinery and other products construction and real estate electric power, gas, and heat supply finance and trade transport communications and services households total

0.0 100

0.0

0.0

0.0 100

0.0

0.0

0.0 100

0.0

0.0

a

5.7 0.0 0.2 9.3

coal petro nat

SPM (%) oth

0.0 100

0.0

2.8 0.0 0.1 8.2

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.3

oth

0.0 76.4 0.0 23.6

93.8 0.5 0.0 8.1 84.2 15.7 0.0 0.1 90.4 9.4 0.0 0.2 48.7 1.9 40.1 18.6

89.6 0.4 87.6 12.3 92.6 7.1 78.1 2.3

2.0 1.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 1.0 12.9

98.9 92.0 97.8 65.0

0.0 0.0 7.9 0.0 2.1 0.0 1.3 20.9

9.2 26.9

85.6 73.1

5.2 0.0

0.0 12.2 0.0 35.8

81.4 64.2

4.1 0.0

2.4 12.7 0.0 50.4

84.1 49.6

2.9 0.0

0.3 16.8 0.0 39.9

83.2 0.0 60.1 0.0

0.0 10.0 87.8 1.9 0.0 29.7 69.3 0.0

0.2 0.9

55.4

40.0

2.9

1.8 29.4

17.9

0.9 51.8 60.2

36.4

1.5

1.9

87.9 0.0

3.2 38.0 57.4 1.7

3.0

90.9 12.1 3.1

7.3 1.8 70.2 16.6 77.6 18.9

0.0 86.7 1.0 16.6 0.4 5.0

5.3 0.9 66.8 12.1 79.7 14.8

7.0 78.3 4.5 2.6 0.5 1.5

13.7 93.0 91.1

1.6 4.4 6.2

6.5 85.9 0.0 7.4 1.2 6.4

14.1 0.0 0.0 82.2 16.1 1.6 64.4 0.2 28.0 5.6 84.7 6.9 92.0 0.2 1.4 2.0 84.6 7.6

0.1 2.8 5.8

0.0

89.6 10.4

0.0

89.0

3.2

99.2

0.8

0.0

0.1

99.7 0.3

0.0

1.6

4.6 26.0

73.6 0.2

0.2 41.6 18.5 0.6 39.3

24.9

0.0

7.8

0.0

27.0 29.0 19.1 37.5

31.7 24.9

5.9 32.5

50.4 12.5

0.0 0.0 1.6

87.1 12.9 99.7 0.3 76.1 22.3

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 2.3

90.0 10.0 99.8 0.2 79.5 17.8

0.0 0.0 0.4

0.0 91.0 0.0 100 1.2 91.2

0.0 19.1

83.9 16.1 58.4 14.8

0.0 0.0 7.7 25.2

86.9 13.1 57.3 11.1

0.0 6.4

0.0 8.8

8.9

97.2 99.9 99.9 62.5

0.0

coal petro nat

2.0 0.1 0.2 5.5

97.1 95.9 97.3 47.3

0.0 0.8 2.9 1.1 2.1 0.4 0.4 46.8

0.0 88.9 9.5

9.0 0.0 7.6

0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 100 0.0 0.0 100 0.0 3.7 95.8 0.4

0.0 0.0 0.0

83.8 16.2 88.2 2.1

0.0 0.9

0.0 8.8

0.0 0.0 57.0 0.5 42.5 1.2 10.9 68.4 1.0 19.8

99.7 0.3 90.0 0.1

0.0 94.1 0.3 5.5 0.0 83.2 0.0 16.7 5.1 78.1 3.1 13.8

Abbreviations: coal, coal-based fuel; petro, petroleum-based fuel; nat, natural gas-based fuel; oth, others.

indirectly per unit production. d pj is the direct burden of environmental burden p per unit production, ai,j represents the input coefficient, mi is the import coefficient, and n is the number of intermediate sectors. ai,j and mi can be obtained from the Input-Output Tables, and d pj can be determined by dividing the domestic production of sector j into the direct environmental burden of the sector or energy consumption and emissions as estimated in the previous section. The domestic production is written in the InputOutput Tables. Expressing eq 4 in terms of vectors and matrices and solving the equation for e pj provides eq 5

e ) d{I - (I - M)A}-1

(5)

where e ) {e pj } is the embodied intensity vector, A ) {ai,j} is the input coefficient matrix, M ) {mi} represents the import 2012

9


coefficient diagonal matrix, d ) {d pj } indicates the direct environmental burden vector, and I is the identity matrix. On the other hand, the economic final demand for sector j, Fj, can be divided into domestic final demand, Yj, and export demand, Ej, as in eq 6. Equation 7 gives the induced environmental burden, T pj , by the final demand for sector j. Values of Yj and Ej are given by the Input-Output Tables.

Fj ) Yj + Ej

(6)

T pj ) e pj {(1 - mj)Yj + Ej}

(7)

The direct consumption and emissions values of T pj calculated for the 399 sectors plus the “consumption expenditures of households”, a final demand sector, were consolidated into the 17 sectors summarized in Table 8. The characteristics of energy consumption and emission struc-

TABLE 8. Energy Consumption and Emissions Induced by Economic Final Demand for Each Sector in Japan (1995) energy

CO2

NOx

SOx

SPM

sector name

EJ

%

Mt-C

%

Mt

%

Mt

%

Mt

%

agriculture, forestry, and fisheries mining food textiles pulp, paper, and wooden products chemical products petroleum refineries and coal ceramic, stone, and clay products iron and steel nonferrous metals machinery and other products construction and real estate electric power, gas, and heat supply finance and trade transport communications and services households (direct) total

0.17 0.00 0.85 0.22 0.12 0.52 0.21 0.09 0.29 0.11 2.67 2.78 2.09 1.13 1.51 3.20 2.37 18.3

(1%) (0%) (5%) (1%) (1%) (3%) (1%) (0%) (2%) (1%) (15%) (15%) (11%) (6%) (8%) (17%) (13%)

3.2 0.0 15.0 4.0 1.9 9.1 3.1 2.5 7.2 2.3 50.9 65.8 34.5 19.2 27.9 55.5 41.4 343

(1%) (0%) (4%) (1%) (1%) (3%) (1%) (1%) (2%) (1%) (15%) (19%) (10%) (6%) (8%) (16%) (12%)

0.072 0.000 0.210 0.028 0.013 0.047 0.017 0.020 0.024 0.013 0.290 0.613 0.107 0.139 1.439 0.388 0.090 3.51

(2%) (0%) (6%) (1%) (0%) (1%) (0%) (1%) (1%) (0%) (8%) (17%) (3%) (4%) (41%) (11%) (3%)

0.040 0.000 0.136 0.025 0.011 0.038 0.014 0.006 0.014 0.008 0.181 0.170 0.084 0.076 0.825 0.219 0.024 1.87

(2%) (0%) (7%) (1%) (1%) (2%) (1%) (0%) (1%) (0%) (10%) (9%) (4%) (4%) (44%) (12%) (1%)

0.008 0.000 0.034 0.003 0.002 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.031 0.055 0.024 0.015 0.077 0.046 0.012 0.32

(2%) (0%) (11%) (1%) (1%) (2%) (0%) (0%) (1%) (0%) (10%) (17%) (7%) (5%) (24%) (14%) (4%)

tures in terms of environmental burden are summarized in the following subsections. Energy Consumption. The total energy consumption attributable to Japanese economic activity was estimated to be 18.3 EJ in 1995 (see Table 6). This value is somewhat smaller than the 19.6 EJ proposed by Hondo et al. (41), since there were differences in the calorific values for each fuel and the definition of the net contribution rate in addition to differences in the statistics used in the estimation. For direct energy consumption, the “electric power, gas, and heat supply” sector accounted for 35% of the whole, or 6.33 EJ, because nuclear, hydro, and other forms of power generation were included, followed by 17%, or 3.09 EJ for the “transport” sector. The “consumption expenditures of households” (households) sector accounted for 13% of the total, or 2.37 EJ, mainly due to consumption of gasoline and diesel oil by private cars (see Tables 6 and 7). For energy consumption induced by final demand, the economic demands of the “communications and service” sector, which includes restaurants, personal services such as amusement facilities, and medical and insurance services, directly and indirectly induced 17% of the total energy, although the direct energy consumption was only 5%, or 0.97 EJ (see Tables 6 and 8). Similarly, 15% of the total energy originated from the economic demands of the “construction and real estate” sector, although it directly consumed only 2% of the total, or 0.29 EJ. CO2 Emissions. CO2 emissions were estimated to be 343 Mt-C in this study (see Table 6). This estimate falls between the 334 Mt-C calculated by Hondo et al. (41) and the 359 Mt-C calculated by Asakura et al. (32). The proportion of direct CO2 emissions by sector was similar to that of energy consumption. Emissions from the “electric power, gas, and heat supply” sector were the greatest, representing about 30% of the whole, or 103 Mt-C, followed by 58 Mt-C and 41 Mt-C in the “transport” and “household” sectors, respectively. The “ceramic, stone, and clay products” sector, which includes the cement industry consuming limestone (categorized as “others” in Table 7), accounted for 7% of total CO2 emissions, despite accounting for only 3% of total energy consumption. Also, consuming limestone and large amounts of coal-based fuels increased the percentage of the “iron and steel” sector from an 8% share of energy consumption to an 11% share of CO2 emissions (see Tables 6 and 7). The sectoral proportion of CO2 emissions induced by the final demand was similar to that of the induced energy consumption shown in Table 8. However, the percentage for

the “construction and real estate” sector showed the largest share (19%), because of demand by this sector for iron and steel and cement production, in which CO2 is emitted from consumption of limestone as separate from fuel burning. NOx Emissions. NOx emissions amounted to 3.51 Mt. Emissions from the “transport” sector, including mobile sources such as road transport, marine transport, and air transport, were 2.12 Mt and accounted for 61% (Table 6). Emission control technologies, such as denitrification equipment and low NOx burners, are installed in stationary sources, which is why the contribution of the “electric power, gas, and heat supply” sector was only 8%, or 0.28 Mt of NOx, despite being the major energy-consuming sector. Emissions from the “agriculture, forestry, and fisheries” sector amounted to 0.22 Mt due to the combustion of fuel oil (“petroleumbased fuel”) by fishing boats (see Table 7). On the other hand, the “transport” sector not only was the largest direct emission sector but also showed the largest share (41%) of induced NOx emissions (see Table 8). The breakdown of NOx emissions was different from that for CO2. In particular, the “food” sector showed a high ratio of 6%, because this sector causes NOx emissions from fuel oil for fishing boats by inducing activity in the “agriculture, forestry and fisheries” sector. SOx Emissions. SOx emissions were estimated to be 1.87 Mt. Stationary sources contributed only a small amount to this total (see Table 6) owing to control measures such as installation of desulfurizing equipment. Emissions from mobile sources in the “transport” sector were 0.97 Mt, accounting for 52%, a very large proportion; this was the same as for NOx. In particular, consumption of fuel oil by vessels bound for overseas pushed up the amount of emissions. SOx emissions depend on the fuel type, and the major emitting sectors in the list of stationary sources were the “iron and steel” sector, which consumes large amounts of coking coal and steam coal, and the “food” sector, which consumes fuel oil for steam boilers. Also, the “paper and pulp” sector produces high SOx emissions owing to the utilization of fuel oil as a heat source for drying paper as well as the utilization of black liquor included in “others” in Table 7. The cause of SOx emissions from black liquor is the presence of sulfur compounds originating from the sodium sulfide used in the digesting process to eliminate lignin from wood. From the viewpoint of final demand, as was the case with NOx, the “transport” sector dominated, contributing 44% of the SOx emissions, almost half of the total (see Table 8). The “machinery and other production” sector had a share of 10%, VOL. 37, NO. 9, 2003 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

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larger than that of the “construction and real estate” sector with 9%. The NOx emission intensity for the “construction and real estate” sector showed a high value because of emissions from construction machinery, but in the case of SOx emission intensity, the contribution of construction machinery was small, because the intensity was calculated on the basis of fuel sulfur content. Therefore, the final demand for the “construction and real estate” sector caused minimal SOx emissions. SPM Emissions. The total SPM emission of primary particles from anthropogenic sources was estimated at 0.32 Mt (see Table 6). Emissions from the “transport” sector accounted for 45%, or 0.14 Mt. Tire wear caused 0.032 Mt of SPM emissions, or 10% of the whole, leading to greater emission amounts in the “transport” and “household” sectors. The contribution of the “agriculture, forestry, and fisheries” sector amounted to 0.036 Mt, or 11% of the total, owing to the inclusion of emissions from the open burning of straw and chaff (“others” in Table 7) as well as emissions from fishing boats. This was a high value, following the 0.046 Mt for the “electric power, gas, and heat supply” sector. The economic demands of the “food” sector induced SPM emissions of 11% of the whole (Table 8), following the “transport” and the “construction and real estate” sectors. Since the demand for the “food” sector was related to production by the “agriculture, forestry, and fisheries” sector, the emissions from open burning and fishing boats increased the share of the “food” sector in the total. Policy Implications. The data presented in this paper show direct as well as induced energy consumption and emissions in 400 sectors. These data can be utilized to choose key sectors for which policy measures and new technologies should be introduced to reduce the environmental burdens. Furthermore, these data indicate the amount of direct and indirect emissions induced by unit production activity (1 000 000 yen units); therefore, the embodied intensity e pj can be used as inventory data in LCA, giving a clear definition of the system boundary of a life cycle. Methods that use the embodied intensities in LCA have been developed (e.g., refs 13, 42-44), and case studies of LCA using embodied intensities have been reported (e.g., refs 13). The embodied intensities obtained in this study enable LCA to be carried from the viewpoint of both global warming and air pollution. Both the direct emissions and the embodied intensities of each sector are shown in the tables in the Supporting Information. Additionally, data on the emissions and other related values, such as emission factors used in this study, can be obtained from the data book “Embodied Energy and Emission Intensity Data for Japan Using Input-Output Tables (3EID)” (45). This publication is available free of charge from the Center for Global Environmental Research at the National Institute for Environmental Studies in Japan (http://wwwcger.nies.go.jp/cger-e/db/d031_e/3eid_e.html).

Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Global Environmental Research Fund provided by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan. This project also received support from the “Research for the Future” Program, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) “Distributed Autonomous Urban Energy System for Mitigating Environmental Impact” Project (JSPS-RFTF97P01002), and the Sumitomo Foundation (Grant No. 013243). The authors are grateful for their help.

Supporting Information Available Estimation methodology and tables of intensities. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http:// pubs.acs.org. 2014

9


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Received for review May 3, 2002. Revised manuscript received February 21, 2003. Accepted March 3, 2003. ES0257669

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