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Converting Carbohydrates to Carbon-based Photocatalysts for Environmental Treatment Zhuofeng Hu, Zhurui Shen, and Jimmy Chai Mei Yu Environ. Sci. Technol., Just Accepted Manuscript • Publication Date (Web): 16 May 2017 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on May 16, 2017
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Converting Carbohydrates to Carbon-based Photocatalysts for
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Environmental Treatment
3
Zhuofeng Hu,a Zhurui Shen,a, b, * Jimmy C. Yu,a, *
4
a
5
Territories, Hong Kong, 999077, PR China, E-mail:
[email protected] 6
b
7
Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin,
8
300072, PR China, E-mail:
[email protected].
Department of Chemistry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New
Key Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology, Ministry of
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
*Corresponding authors:
20
Jimmy C. Yu: Tel: +852-3943-6268, Fax: +852-2603-5057, E-mail:
21
[email protected].
22
Zhurui Shen: E-mail:
[email protected].
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ABSTRACT
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Carbohydrates in biomass can be converted to semiconductive hydrothermal
25
carbonation carbon (HTCC), a material that contains plenty of sp2-hybridization
26
structures. Under solar light illumination, HTCC generates photoexcited electrons,
27
holes and hydroxyl radicals. These species can be used for photocatalytic treatment
28
such as water disinfection and degradation of organic pollutants. The photocatalytic
29
activity of HTCC can be significantly enhanced by iodine doping. The enhancement
30
mechanism is investigated by density functional theoretical calculations and
31
electrochemical measurements. The iodine dopants twist and optimize the structures
32
of the sp2-hybridization in HTCC, thereby favoring photon-induced excitation.
33
Moreover, the iodine dopants facilitate the charge transfer between different
34
sp2-hybridization structures, thus increasing the conductivity and activity of the
35
HTCC. An added benefit is that the I-doped HTCC exhibits lower cytotoxic effect
36
than the pure HTCC. In addition to monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose)
37
and polysaccharides (starch), we have also transformed crops (e.g., rice), plants (e.g.
38
grass), and even agricultural waste (e.g. straw) and animal waste (e.g. cow dung). The
39
conversion of carbohydrates to HTCC may be considered as a “Trash to Treasure”
40
approach. We believe this discovery will attract a lot of attention from researchers
41
involved in environmental catalysis, waste recycling and pollution treatment.
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Key words: Carbohydrate; Hydrothermal carbonation carbon (HTCC); Iodine doping;
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Disinfection; Environmental remediation.
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INTRODUCTION
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Carbohydrates are common natural products, which are largely synthesized by
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plants through photosynthesis (billion tons per year). Consisting of carbon, oxygen
49
and hydrogen, they are abundant, environmental-benign, and easily accessible. They
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have H:O atomic ratios of 2:1, just like that in water.1 Depending on the
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polymerization level, carbohydrates are mainly sorted into: monosaccharides (e.g.
52
glucose), disaccharides (e.g. sucrose), and polysaccharides (e.g. starch). Also,
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carbohydrates form a major fraction of natural biomass such as some crops and grass.
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Moreover, many agricultural wastes (e.g. straw) and animal wastes (e.g. cow dung)
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contain large quantity of carbohydrates. In developing countries, these wastes are
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often burned as fuels and release plenty of harmful particulates and greenhouse gas.
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Converting these carbohydrates to high value-added functional materials seems to be
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a sensible approach for environmental sustainability
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Hydrothermal carbonation (HTC) treatment of carbohydrates has attracted growing
60
attention since its discovery in 1913 by Bergius (using cellulose).2 Generally,
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hydrothermal carbonation carbon (HTCC) can be obtained in a sealed container with
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aqueous solution or suspension of carbohydrate biomass at 180-350 oC after several to
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tens of hours of reaction.3 The HTC treatment of carbohydrates is very attractive for
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the following reasons: 1) The HTC process is exothermic rather than endothermic.4 2)
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The HTC process is considered as a “wet pyrolysis” process. Unlike dry pyrolysis of
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biomass where lots of energy is used to remove moisture, it is much less
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energy-consuming.2 3) Transformation of carbohydrate into HTCC rather than
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burning it to emit CO2 helps to mitigate greenhouse gas release,5 4) The HTCC has a
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relative low cost and nearly zero net emission2, 6 5) The HTCC is ready to be grafted
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with organic functional groups on its surface. For example, Qi et al. have prepared
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HTCC materials (from cellulose) with plenty of carboxylic groups on the surface.7
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They were used as an efficient adsorbent for heavy metals8 and water soluble ionic
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liquid, 1-butyl-3-methyl-imidazolium chloride ([BMIM][Cl]).9 Therefore, HTCC has
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been widely used in hazardous chemicals cleanup, catalysts support, and porous
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carbon fabrication.6, 7, 9, 10 However, most of these applications just utilize the high
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surface area and rich functional groups of HTCC. The inner chemical structure of the
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HTCC is usually overlooked, and the full potential of HTCC has yet to be realized.
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Recently, our group found that the HTCC derived from glucose was composed of
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skeletons of light-absorbing and semiconducting sp2-hybridization units.11 These units
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can generate photoexcited electrons and holes under illumination. The highly active
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radicals thus formed can oxidize toxic organic pollutants and deactivate bacteria in
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water.12-17 Unlike metal containing semiconductors that will release harmful metal
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cations, HTCC would not cause secondary pollution. However, these sp2-hybrided
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units are discrete, leading to poor charge transfer and conductivity in large particles.
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Therefore, HTCC by itself is not a good photocatalyst. It must be combined with other
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metal oxide semiconductors in practical applications.11, 18
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Herein, we report a simple iodine (I-) doping approach to enhance the
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photocatalytic activity of HTCC. Iodide is widely distributed in the environment, and
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it is essential for human health.19 The I-doped HTCC particles exhibit significantly
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higher activity in disinfection and organic pollutant degradation under visible-light
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illumination. The photocatalytic mechanisms for HTCC and iodine (I)-doped HTCC
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are deduced from theoretical simulations and spectroscopic measurements. The
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theoretical simulations show that the iodine dopants twist the sp2-hybridization
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structures of the HTCC, thereby favoring more photon-induced excitation. Also, the
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iodine dopants facilitate the charge transfer between different sp2-hybridization
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structures, thereby increasing the conductivity and photocatalytic activity of the
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HTCC. Moreover, we have developed a series of I-doped HTCC from different kinds
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of carbohydrate-based materials including sucrose, starch, rice, grass, straw and
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animal waste. These render the practical application of I-doped HTCC possible in the
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field of environmental application.
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EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
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Preparation of I-doped HTCC. 0.5 g of elemental iodine was dissolved into 20 mL
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of absolute ethanol. With the addition of 2.0 g glucose, the solution was transferred to
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a 25 mL Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave and heated at 180 oC for 4 hours. The
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product was collected via filtration and dried in a vacuum oven overnight. Besides
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monosaccharide, disaccharide of sucrose, polysaccharide of starch, grain of rice and
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grass were also used. For gram-scale preparation, the elemental iodine was increased
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to 25 g, while the glucose was increased to 100 g.
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Preparation of iodine-free HTCC. 2.0 g glucose was dissolved into 20 mL of
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distilled water to form a homogeneous solution. Subsequently, the solution was
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transferred to a 25 mL Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave and heated at 180 oC for
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10 hours. After the reaction, the product was taken out and washed with distilled
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water before being dried in a vacuum oven. For gram-scale preparation, the amount of
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glucose was increased to 100 g.
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Characterization. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed on a FEI
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Quanta 400 microscope X-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed on a Rigaku
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SmartLab X-ray diffractometer using a Cu Kα source irradiation (λ=1.5406 Å). Small
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angle X-Ray scattering measurement was performed on a Xenocs-SAXS/WAXS
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system with X-ray wavelength of 1.5418 Å. X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
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was performed using a Sengyang SKL-12 spectrometer equipped with a VG CLAM 4
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MCD electron energy analyzer and twin anode Mg Kα radiation (1253.6 eV). 13C
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solid-state magic angle spinning (MAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
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experiments have been acquired on Bruker Avance 300 MHz (7 T) spectrometer using
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the 4 mm zirconia rotors as sample holders spinning at MAS rate vMAS=14 kHz.
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Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area was measured by a Surface Area and
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Porosity Analyzer (ASAP 2460). Raman spectrum was performed on a DXR
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Microscope (Thermo Electron Corporation) with a resolution of 1.496 cm-1 and
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excitation wavelength of 532 nm. The slit is 50 µm and the power is 5 µW.
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Photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB). In all the degradation
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experiments, 10 mg photocatalysts were suspended in 30 mL aqueous solution of RhB
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(20 ppm). The suspension was firstly stirred in the dark to reach an
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adsorption/desorption equilibrium. Then the suspension was illuminated by a 300 W
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halogen tungsten lamp equipped with a UV cutoff filter (λ> 420 nm). The
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concentration of RhB was measured by a UV-Vis spectrophotometer at an interval of
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1 hour.
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The photocatalytic activity was evaluated using a time profiles of C/C0, where C is
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the concentration of the dyes at the irradiation time t, and C0 the concentration at the
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equilibrium point before irradiation, respectively. The apparent rate constant for the
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photodegradation of RhB was calculated by the equation of k=In(C0/C)/t.12
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Photocatalytic disinfection performance. The photocatalytic disinfection was
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performed by using a 300 W xenon lamp (PLS-SXE-300, Beijing Perfect Light Co.
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Ltd., Beijing) with a UV cutoff filter (λ> 420 nm). The visible-light intensity was
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measured by a light meter (LI-COR, USA) and was fixed at 200 mW cm-2. All glass
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apparatuses used were cleaned at 120 °C for 30 min to ensure sterility. The bacterial
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cells was incubated in 10% nutrient broth solution at 30 °C for 18 h with shaking, and
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then washed with sterilized saline. The final photocatalyst concentration and cell
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density were adjusted to 200 mg L-1 and about 1×107 colony forming units per
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milliliter (cfu mL-1), respectively. The reaction temperature was 25 °C and the
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reaction mixture was stirred with a magnetic stirrer during the experiment. Before and
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after the photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) treatment, an aliquot of the reaction solution
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was sampled and immediately diluted with sterilized saline, and an appropriate
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dilution of the sample was spread on nutrient agar and incubated at 30 °C for 24 h.
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The number of colonies was counted to calculate the number of viable cells.
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Scavenger solutions included 1 M isopropanol for •OH radicals, 1 M K2Cr2O7for
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electrons and 1 M sodium oxalate for holes.
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Detection and measurements of photogenerated •OH radicals. 5 mg of
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photocatalysts were ultrasonically dispersed in 25 mL 1×10-3 M coumarin solution.
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The suspension was stirred under visible light. At an interval of 2 hour, 2 mL of the
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suspension was extracted and centrifuged. Then, 1 mL of the clear solution was
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collected for the PL measurement. The generated 7-hydroxycoumarin was monitored
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by fluorescence analysis with an excitation wavelength of 332 nm.20
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Photoelectrochemical measurements. The powder sample was fabricated into
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electrode on a FTO glass by electrophoretic deposition. All the photoelectrochemical
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measurements
were
performed
in
a
three-electrode
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saturated-potassium-chloride silver chloride electrode (Ag/AgCl) as a reference
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electrode, a platinum foil (1.0×1.0 cm-2) as a counter electrode, and the HTCC
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electrode as a working electrode. The electrolyte was 0.1 M Na2SO4. A 300 W Xenon
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arc lamp coupled with an AM 1.5G global filter (100 mWcm-2) and UV cut-off filter
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(λ> 420 nm) were used as radiation source. Linear sweeps and transient photocurrent
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were measured by a CHI 660D electrochemical workstation.
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Density functional theoretical calculations. VASP computational package was used
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here for all the calculations.21 We applied projector-augmented-wave method with
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Perdew–Burke–Ernzerhof GGA functional.22-24 Electronic convergence limit was set
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to be 1×10−5 eV. Optimization of atomic coordinates was considered to be converged
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if Hellmann–Feynman force was smaller than 1×10−2 eV Å−1. We applied Monkhorst–
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Pack scheme 2×2×2 for k-point selection. The Brillouin zone was sampled using
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2×2×2 Monkhorst-Pack
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Morphology, structure and chemical nature of I-doped HTCC. HTCC is formed
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via the cross-linking and intermolecular dehydration of glucose molecules under
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hydrothermal condition.25 Iodine can be incorporated into the HTCC to form I-doped
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HTCC with brownish black color and tens of grams yield (Figure 1a-c). The I-doped
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HTCC particles are irregular 2-4 µm microparticles (Figure 1b), and are confirmed
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amorphous by the absence of noticeable diffraction peaks in the XRD pattern (Figure
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1d). Besides, SAXS is also performed to study their microstructures (Figure S1),
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Results show that: i) the I-doped HTCC displays much stronger scattering contrast
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than that of HTCC, suggesting higher heterogeneity of electron density caused by
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iodine doping. ii) both peaks decay smoothly all the way to the baseline, suggesting
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the absence of nanoscale assembly and pores.26 BET adsorption–desorption isotherms
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of I-doped HTCC (Figure S2a) exhibit a typical IV isotherm (based on IUPAC
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classification).27 The rapid increase below the relative pressure of 0.1 indicate the
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existence of lots of micropores, while the hysteretic loop between 0.4 to 0.6 suggests
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the presence of the mesopores, as confirmed by the pore distribution curve (Figure
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S2b).27 The BET surface area is c.a. 254 m²/g.
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FT-IR spectra were recorded to examine the chemical structure of the samples.
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Characteristic IR peaks for polyfuran were found as shown in Figure 1e. The wide
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bands at 1610 cm-1, 1385 cm-1 and the shoulder bands at 1440 cm-1 and 960 cm-1 can
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be assigned to the vibrational modes of the furan monomer.28, 29 The band at 1517
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cm-1 is ascribed to the C=C stretching of furan ring. Moreover, the band at 798 cm-1 is
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due to the α, α’-coupling of the carbon backbone, originating from the linear structure
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in polyfuran (Scheme S1). Besides, the bands at 1190 cm-1 and 1010 cm-1 are ascribed
203
to the C-H bending and stretching modes, and the bands at 870 cm-1 and 630 cm-1 are
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assigned to the out-of-plane bending of C-H modes in the furan rings.28, 29 The bands
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at 2940 cm-1 and 1700 cm-1 are ascribed to the aliphatic C-H stretching mode and
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C=O stretching, respectively. These suggest that some furan rings are open in the
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polymer, which is not surprising for a large polyfuran structure. The O-H stretching
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peak at 3410 cm-1 clearly indicates the adsorption of water molecules on the catalyst.
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With the addition of iodine, the peaks related to polyfuran remain, suggesting the
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doping of iodine does not destroy the backbone structure of the HTCC.
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In the
13
C Solid-state CP-MAS NMR spectra of both HTCC and I-doped
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HTCCC (Figure 1f), the peaks at 152 ppm and 115–127 ppm correspond to O-C=C
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and C=C-C of the furan rings, and they are denoted as the polyfuran domains in the
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spectrum.30, 31 The wide peak centred at 40 ppm can be ascribed to the aliphatic C-H
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groups. The peaks at 175 ppm and 205 ppm can be assigned to the –COOH and –C=O
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groups, respectively. These three peaks (40 ppm, 175 ppm and 205 ppm) suggest there
217
are some open rings domains in the polyfuran, which is consistent with the result of
218
FT-IR spectra. While the Raman spectrum of I-doped HTCC (Figure S3) further
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shows five bands at ca. 1600 (v1), 1550 (v2), 1275 (v3), 1024 (v4), and 965 cm-1 (v5),
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which is close to the Raman spectra of previously reported polyfuran.32 The elemental
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analysis (EA) show that the weight percentage of C, H, O and I in HTCC are 63.6 %,
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4.55 %, 28.1 % and 3.70 % respectively. The weight ratio of C, H, O are close to the
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theoretical values of pure polyfuran (C: 72.73 %, H: 3.03 %, O: 24.24 %).
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In the XPS I 3d spectra (Figure 1g,h), the signals of iodine can hardly be observed
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in the iodine-free HTCC, while two peaks related to I 3d 5/2 and I 3d 3/2 can be seen
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in the I 3d XPS spectra of I-doped HTCC, where the I 3d 5/2 peak with binding
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energy of 619.2 eV suggests the iodine should exist as I-.33-35 In the reaction, iodine is
228
reduced to iodide while glucose is oxidized to other species such as carboxylic acid
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during the conversion process. Besides, the O 1s and C1s spectra are also studied and
230
the chemical state of HTCC and I-doped HTCC are further analyzed (Figure S4,
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Section S1). Also, the depth profile XPS spectra (Figure S5, Table S1, Section S2)
232
suggest that the iodine dopants locate homogeneously in the I-doped HTCC.
233 234
Band structure and semiconductive nature of I-doped HTCC. The hybridized π
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electrons in the sp2-hybridized structures in HTCC can be excited easily by absorbing
236
visible light photons.36 As shown in the ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectrum of
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I-doped HTCC (Figure 2a), an intrinsic semiconductor-like absorption is observed in
238
a wide region. The bandgap of the I-doped HTCC is then estimated to be about 1.0 eV
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accordingly (Figure 2b). Iodine doping leads to a band-to-band absorption red shift,
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suggesting a homogeneous distribution of iodine dopants,
241
the Argon ion sputtering XPS analysis. The red shift indicates narrowing of the
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bandgap. This can be attributed to the twist structure of HTCC induced by iodine
243
doping, which will be demonstrated in the Vasp theoretical calculation below.
37
which is consistent with
244
The band structure of the I-doped HTCC is then estimated by Mott-Schotty plot
245
(Figure S6a)38, 39 and valance XPS spectrum (Figure S6b). Calculation detail can be
246
found in Section S3 and Section S4 in SI
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We find that he Fermi level, conduction band (CB) and valence band (VB) of the
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I-doped HTCC is at 0.6 V, 0.26 V and 1.2 V vs. RHE. Similarly, the band structure of
249
iodine free HTCC is also calculated as the reference (Figure S6c, d). The Fermi level
250
is at 0.15 V vs. RHE, the CB is at -0.24 V vs. RHE (0.15 – 0.39 V), the VB is at 1.15
251
V vs. RHE, and its bandgap is about 1.39 eV. It is shown that the insertation of iodine
252
caused a narrowing of the bandgap of I-doped HTCC, which is benefical to light
253
absorption.
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The generation of photoexcited carrier is proved by the photocurrent measurement
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(Figure 2c).40 Appreciable photocurrent is produced after 0.65 V and raised with
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increasing positive bias under chopped visible light illumination (Figure 2c). The
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onset potential (0.65 V) is very close to the flatband potential measured by the
258
Mott-Schotty plot. Meanwhile, repeatable photocurrent is produced in the chopped
259
transient photocurrent measurement at 1.23 V vs. RHE (Insert in Figure 2c).
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The generation of active oxidative species (mainly •OH radical) is monitored using
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coumarin as a fluorescence probe (Figure S7).20 Non-fluorescent Coumarin capture
262
•OH radical to produce fluorescent 7-hydroxycoumarin with an emission peak at 460
263
nm upon 315 nm excitation. As shown in Figure 2d, the generation of •OH radical
264
from I-doped HTCC is confirmed by a rising peak at 460 nm. The band structure and
265
excitation process of I-doped HTCC and HTCC are finally schematically shown in
266
Figure 2e.
267 268
Environmental treatment. After exploring its semiconductive nature and electronic
269
property, the I-doped HTCC is applied to photocatalytic disinfection. E. coil K-12,
270
which was chosen as a representative microorganism (Figure 3a-c). During the 3-hour
271
control experiment in dark, the population of bacterial remains constant with HTCC
272
whether iodine is doped or not (Figure 3a). Under visible light illumination, the
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iodine-free HTCC exhibits very weak activity, whereas the I-doped HTCC exhibit
274
appreciable activity (Figure 3a).
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The roles of photoexcited holes and electrons were determined by the addition of
276
scavenger chemicals (Figure 3c). Results show that photoexcited holes and electrons
277
in the VB and CB were significantly involved in the reaction, respectively, confirmed
278
by the obvious inhibition of bacterial inactivation after the addition of corresponding
279
scavengers. Besides, the inhibition effect with OH radicals is more obvious than that
280
of hole and electron scavenger. This suggests the OH radicals play more important
281
role in the photocatalytic disinfection process.
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The I-doped HTCC can also be used for degrading a representative pollutant
283
RhB.16 As shown in Figure 3d, RhB is stable under the illumination of visible light
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without photocatalysts. With HTCC, the degradation of RhB is very slow (k=0.0003
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min-1). While for I-doped HTCC, the degradation of RhB becomes much faster
286
(k=0.0077 min-1, Figure 3d and Figure S8a). Moreover, I-doped HTCC also exhibits
287
appreciable activity (a 3.3-fold improvement) when compared with a well-known
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metal free photocatalyst-graphic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) (k=0.0018 min-1, Figure S8b).
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It is also comparable to another state-of-the-art photocatalyst CdS (k=0.0097 min-1,
290
Figure S8b). Na+, K+ and Fe2+/Fe3+ cations (1 wt%) are also added during
291
photocatalysis, and results show that they have no effect on the photocatalytic activity
292
(Figure S9).
293
These results indicate that I-doped HTCC has great potential in photocatalytic
294
disinfection of bacteria and degradation or organic pollutant, which will render its
295
practical application in environmental remediation. Moreover, it even shows good
296
stability even after irradiation by UV light for 10 h (Figure S10)
297 298
In addition, the adsorption ability (using Cd2+) of I-doped HTCC is summarized in Figure S11 and Section S5.
299 300
Function of iodine dopants : density functional theoretical calculation and
301
spectroscopic analysis. It is known that halogen doping can influence the electronic
302
property of materials.41, 42 Herein, the function of iodine dopants will be studied by
303
using Vasp theoretical calculation, XPS spectra and electrochemical measurements
304
Since the semiconducting property of HTCC is mainly originating from polyfuran,
305
we use a polyfuran structure contain 42 units of furan rings for density functional
306
theory (DFT) calculation (Figure 4).43 The insertion energy (Einsert) is calculated to be
307
-2.09 eV, suggesting the insertion of iodine is energetically favorable (Section S6 and
308
Figure S12 in SI). Also, after the insertion of iodine, the structure is greatly disturbed
309
and the six furan units in a furan chain no longer in a plane (Figure 4a, c) The
310
structure distortion induced by iodine insertion greatly favors the electronic structure
311
of the HTCC. With iodine doped, the obvious discrete DOS peak becomes continuous
312
because the molecular conformation of polyfuran changes from plane to twist due to
313
the insertion of large iodine atoms (Figure S13a, b). Excitations are more possible to
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occur between different positions. Also, the insertion of iodine causes a shrink of
315
bandgap from 1.5 eV to 1.0 eV, which is in agreement with our experimental results.
316
The VB edge rises toward high energy level and the CB edge drops toward low
317
energy level. The band structure (Figure S13c, d) shows similar result with that of
318
DOS. The highest occupied state is set to 0 eV. Obvious discrete bands can be found
319
in iodine-free HTCC, while they become continuous after insertion of iodine. This
320
suggests excitation can occur at more positions. Also, the effective electron mass of
321
the I-doped HTCC (0.166 m0) is smaller than that of HTCC (0.353 m0) at the bottom
322
of the CB, suggesting higher charge transfer efficiency (Detail see Section S7 and
323
Figure S14 in SI).
324 325
Therefore, as discussed above, the bandgap of the HTCC should be due to the polyfuran structures
326
The charges around atoms are quantitatively calculated44 and listed in Table S2, In
327
the absence of iodine, O atoms accept electron from C and H atoms with 7.59e around,
328
as confirmed by the red region in parallel charge density map (Figure 5a, b). In the
329
presence of iodine, I atoms also accept electron from the furan chain of H and C
330
atoms with 7.14e around. It should be noted that the iodine would not reach 8.0 as that
331
reflected in the XPS (I-) due to the calculation method of Bader analysis, which is
332
similar with other report about iodine 45 and other materials.46
333
However, in the charge density map that is perpendicular to the polyfuran chain
334
(Figure 5c, d), an “empty” of electron can be observed between two polyfuran chains.
335
This suggests the electron transfer between the two polyfuran chains is difficult.
336
However, with iodine, an obvious electron cloud around the iodine can be found. The
337
electron can distribute on the polyfuran and on the iodine atom between them.
338
Therefore, electron can transfer between different polyfuran chains and can lead to
339
faster charge transfer. This can also be confirmed by the band-decomposed charge
340
density iossurface (Figure S15 and Section S8).
341
Besides, the enhanced charge transfer in the I-doped HTCC can be confirmed by its
342
higher conductivity measured by Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (Figure
343
S16). Results of such experiment are fitted via an equivalent circuit Rs(RctCPE) and
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summarized in Table S3 (the insert in Figure S16). As shown in Figure S16 and Table
345
S3, charge transfer resistance of I-doped HTCC decreases compared with its
346
iodine-free counterpart both in the dark and under illumination.
347
Overall, according to the investigations above, we propose an enhanced mechanism
348
for the I-doped HTCC. After absorbing photons, photoexcited charge carriers are
349
generated in the sp2-hybridized structures (polyfuran chain), and they will transfer
350
from one polyfuran chain to another. In the absence of iodine, the charge carriers are
351
difficult to transfer among different polyfuran chains. Therefore, they recombine
352
rapidly, thus resulting in low activity of iodine-free HTCC (Figure 3). The insertion of
353
iodine twisted the structure of the HTCC, which increase the excitation possibility.
354
Also, iodine will facilitate charge transfer because they will serve as a charge transfer
355
bridge among different polyfuran chains (Figure 5). Therefore, more charge carriers
356
can transfer to the surface to generate more active species like OH radicals (Figure 2d)
357
and lead to higher activity of I-doped HTCC.
358 359
Preparation of I-doped HTCC using versatile sources of biomass. Carbohydrates
360
are a large family. Besides glucose, we also use other carbohydrate and
361
carbohydrate-containing biomass to prepare I-doped HTCC, including bi-saccharide
362
of sucrose, polysaccharide of starch, crops of rice and plants of grass (Figure 6).
363
Furthermore, we also attempt to use agricultural waste of straw and animal waste of
364
cow dung, which were traditionally burned as fuel and release green house and PM2.5
365
particles. They all show appreciable activity in disinfection and organic dye
366
degradation (Figure 3b, d). The disinfection curve of I-doped HTCC prepared with
367
glucose, sucrose and starch show a shoulder at the beginning, which means the
368
disinfection rate at that time slot is not very fast.12,
369
descending sequence of glucose>sucrose>starch. Therefore, the activity of the
370
I-doped HTCC enhances reversely with the polymerization of the raw materials. This
371
is because the carbohydrates with higher degree of polymerization is more difficult to
372
be converted into HTCC (especially the polyfuran), as supported by the NMR and
373
FT-IR spectra (Figure S17, Section S9).48
47
Their activity follows a
374
Besides, the I-doped HTCC prepared with rice and grass also have a different linear
375
kinetic mode of disinfection, which can be ascribed to their multi-components
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376
(carbohydrates, cellulose and fat) and their more complicated formation process of
377
HTCC.
378 379
Cytotoxic Effect of I-doped HTCC and HTCC. In this work, we test the cytotoxic
380
effect of I-doped HTCC on representative Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells
381
(HUVEC) by using the generated-used WST-1 assay (Detail see Experimental section
382
and Section S10).49, 50 As shown in Figure 7, higher absorbance corresponds to higher
383
viability of the cell and lower cytotoxic effect of the sample. Obviously, both I-doped
384
HTCC and HTCC show very low cytotoxic effect at low concentration of 5 ugml-1.
385
The I-doped HTCC maintains the low cytotoxicity while the pure HTCC exhibits
386
some cytotoxicity at a high concentration of 200 ugml-1, which is the concentration of
387
the samples in our photocatalytic treatment. This suggests that the I-doped HTCC do
388
not has apparent cytotoxicity toward human body, which will be further studied in our
389
lab.
390 391
Environmental Implication. Herein, converting carbohydrates into effective
392
photocatalysts opens a new route for their applications in environmental treatment. As
393
they are dominant constituents in many agricultural waste and animal waste, this
394
transformation may become a “Trash to Treasure” strategy from the perspective of
395
environmental science. Comparing with burning, the transformation of agricultural
396
waste (e.g. straw) and animal waste (e.g. cow dung) into HTCC are beneficial to
397
reducing greenhouse gas release and PM2.5 emission (Figure S18). It is highly
398
possible that other carbohydrate based materials can be transformed by using similar
399
strategy. Also, introduction of halogen atoms into the spacing between the
400
sp2-hybridized structures are helpful for the charge transform inside the polymer. Thus,
401
using iodine as dopant may also provide a new strategy for the practical application of
402
other
403
environmental treatment. This discovery will attract a lot of attention from researchers
404
involved in environmental catalysis, waste recycling and pollution treatment.
405
Acknowledgements.
polymers
with
discrete
sp2-hybridized
structures
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The work described in this paper was partially supported by the grants from the
407
Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
408
(Project No. T23-407/13-N and Project No. 14304315). This work was also supported
409
by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Ref. No. 21303118) and a grant
410
from the Vice-Chancellor's One-off Discretionary Fund of The Chinese University of
411
Hong Kong (Project No. VCF2014016). The theoretical calculation is supported by
412
National supercomputer center in GuangZhou and National supercomputing center in
413
Shenzhen (Shenzhen cloud computing center).
414 415 416
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
417
* Supporting Information
418
Additional information about SAXS patterns, Nitrogen adsorption/desorption
419
isotherms, analysis of FT-IR spectra, Raman spectrum, analysis of C1s and O 1s XPS
420
spectra, depth profile XPS spectra of I from the I-doped HTCC, calculation of band
421
structure, calculation of carrier density, calculation of insertion energy of I doping into
422
HTCC, density of States (DOS), calculation of effective electron mass,
423
band-decomposed charge density iossurface, Nyquist plots and cytotoxic effect of
424
samples and other additional experiments and related details.
425 426
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(g)
(h)
586 587
Figure 1. (a) A photo of I-doped HTCC, SEM images of (b) I-doped HTCC and (c)
588
pure HTCC, (d) XRD patterns, (e) FT-IR spectra and (f) 13C Solid-state NMR of
589
I-doped HTCC and pure HTCC. I 3d XPS spectra of (g) I-doped HTCC and (h) pure
590
HTCC.
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(a)
0.8
I-doped HTCC HTCC
0.6
(ahv)
2
0.4
1.0 eV
0.2
1.3 eV 500
1000
1500
0.0 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0
2000
Wavelength / nm
hv / eV
(c)
(d)
2
0.0010
2500
2
Light off
0.0008
0.0006
0.00060 0.00055 0.00050 0.00045 0.00040
Light on
0.00035 0
0.0004
20
0.6
60
80
Light off
0.0002
0.0000
40
Time / s
Light on
Absorbance / a.u.
0.00065 Current density mA/cm
Current density mA/cm
(b)
2
/ eV nm
-2
Absorbance / a.u.
I-doped HTC carbon HTCC
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I-doped HTCC (6 h) I-doped HTCC (4 h) I-doped HTCC (2 h) HTCC (4 h) Blank
2000 1500 1000 500 0
0.8
1.0
Potential /V vs. RHE
1.2
350 400 450 500 550 600 650
Wavelength / nm
(e)
592 593
Figure 2. (a) UV-Vis diffuse-reflectance spectra and (b) Converted Kubelka–Munk
594
plot of HTCC and I-doped HTCC particles. (c) Anodic scan of iodine-doped HTCC,
595
insert is transient photocurrent measurement at 1.23 V vs. RHE under visible light
596
illumination. (d) Time-dependent Fluorescence spectra of 1×10-3 aqueous solution of
597
coumarin containing 5 mg I-doped HTCC under visible illumination (332 nm
598
excitation). (e) Band diagram of the I-doped HTCC and HTCC.
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(b)
(a)
7 6 5 4 3 2
HTCC dark control HTCC visible light I-doped HTCC dark control I-doped HTCC visible
1 0 -1
Cell density / cfu/mL
Cell density / cfu/mL
8
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1
599
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time / h
(c)
(d) 1.0 0.8
0
0.6
C/C
Cell density / cfu/mL
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Time / h
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1
In the dark I-doped HTCC (straw) I-doped HTCC (starch) I-doped HTCC (cow dung) I-doped HTCC (sucrose) I-doped HTCC (glucose) I-doped HTCC (sucrose) I-doped HTCC (grass) I-doped HTCC (rice)
with OH radical scavenger with hole scavenger with electron scavenger without scavenger
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time / h
No catalyst HTCC without I doped I-doped HTCC(cow dung) I-doped HTCC(starch) I-doped HTCC(straw) I-doped HTCC(sucrose) I-doped HTCC (grass)
0.4 0.2 0.0
0
50
100
I-doped HTCC(rice) I-doped HTCC (glucose)
150
200
250
Time / min
600
Figure 3. (a) Disinfection of E. coli K-12 by HTCC prepared from glucose without
601
and with iodine doped. (b) Disinfection of E. coli K-12 by I-doped HTCC prepared
602
from different kinds of carbohydrates. (c) Disinfection of E. coli K-12 by I-doped
603
HTCC prepared from glucose in the presence of different kinds of scavengers. (d)
604
Temporal course of photodegradation of RhB on iodine-doped HTCC prepared with
605
different kinds of carbohydrates under visible light irradiation.
606
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(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
607 608
Figure 4. (a) Side view and (c) front view of iodine free HTCC. (b) side view and (d)
609
front view of iodine free I doped HTCC.
610
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
611 612
Figure 5. Charge density map of plane parallel with polyfuran chains of (a) HTCC
613
and (b) I-doped HTCC and perpendicular to these (c) HTCC and (d) I-doped HTCC.
614
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Figure 6. Different kinds of carbohydrate based materials and their corresponding
617
I-doped HTCC products.
618
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Absorbtion a.u.
2.0
low sample concentration High sample concentration -1 -1 (5 ugml ) (200 ugml )
1.5
1.0
0.5 Blank
0.0 Blank Control
619
I-doped HTCC Control I-doped HTCC HTCC HTCC
620
Figure 7. The cytotoxic effects of HTCC and I-doped HTCC on Human Umbilical
621
Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVEC).
622
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TOC (Graphical Abstract)
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