Current and Proposed Prospects of Integrated Pest Management in

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Chapter 21

Current and Proposed Prospects of Integrated Pest Management in Reducing Insecticide Use and Movement in the Central Coast of California Shimat V. Joseph* Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, Georgia 30223, United States *E-mail: [email protected].

The central coast of California is well known for its intensive cool-season vegetable and small fruit production. A diverse group of arthropod pests threaten the production of these crops. Management of these pests involves constant monitoring and use of integrative control tactics such as cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical tactics. Because produce quality is critical for marketability, use of insecticides plays a dominant role in pest management in this region. The intensive use of certain insecticides such as organophosphates has resulted in toxic levels in water bodies in the region, increasing the risk of exposure to non-target organisms and people through contaminated water. This has prompted stringent regulations on the use of these insecticides. In response, growers have switched to alternative insecticide options. It is well understood that certain insecticides, such as pyrethroids, have a unique value in managing specific pests under unique circumstances because of key attributes (such as lengthy reentry and preharvest intervals, low cost, and low mammalian toxicity). Further insecticide regulations can be mitigated by increasing adoption of integrated pest management strategies. These strategies can be partial adoption of nonchemical tactics, such as cultural or biological control wherever feasible, along with proper use of chemical tactics for pest management. Insecticide use can be reduced with increased understanding of pest biology © 2019 American Chemical Society Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

and ecology, adequate monitoring, more effective insecticides and application timing, precise delivery methods, and better resistance management.

Introduction The central coast of California is comprised of Monterey, Santa Cruz, and San Benito counties. This region is known for its intensive agriculture, especially in the Salinas Valley (also known as the “salad bowl” of the world), and other agricultural lands in Watsonville, Gilroy, and Hollister. This region produces several high-value vegetable crops, especially lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), Brassicas (broccoli [Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck], and cauliflower [B. oleracea L. var. botrytis]), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), and pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) (1). The central coast is also known for small fruits such as strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier), raspberries (Rubus strigosus L.), and blackberries (Rubus ursinus L.). In 2016, lettuce and Brassica crops were valued at $1.4 billion and $410 million, respectively (1). Strawberries constitute $685 million in Monterey County (1). Other major specialty crops, such as artichokes (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus L.), celery (Apium graveolens var. dulce Mill.), Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera), and wine grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), provide a significant contribution to the agricultural industry. In 2016, the industry had a total value of $4.26 billion in Monterey County (1). Several arthropod pests challenge crop production in the central coast. These pests can be surface and subsurface feeders. Surface feeders attack the foliage of the plants, whereas subsurface feeders attack the root system or feed when the seeds are germinating. Table 1 lists the economically important, major surface, and subsurface feeders in the central coast, and some damaged field pest infestations are presented in Figure 1A–E, although there are other pests not listed in the table that sporadically become serious pests. The threshold for management of these pests depends on the value of the crop and the biology and phenology of the pest. Generally, the tolerance of the listed pests on these specialty crops is very low or almost zero. In the central coast region, arthropod pests affect the crops in multiple ways. Some pests, such as beet armyworm, springtails, cabbage aphid, painted bug, and cabbage maggot, feed directly on the crops and cause stunting and reduced yield (e.g., broccoli or cauliflower). Some other pests, such as leaf miners, western flower thrips, aphids, and western tarnished plant bugs, feed on the economically important plant part, which affects the quality of the produce, such as fruits (e.g., cat-faced strawberry fruits; Figure 1F) and foliage (e.g., stippling or scapping on lettuce or baby spinach). Pests such as aphids and thrips can also transmit viruses, causing diseases such as tomato spotted wilt, necrosis, and mosaic. In some crops, the mere presence of live or dead insects or their body parts (such as thrips, aphids, or any transient insects, e.g., flies, leafhoppers, stink bugs) impact marketability of the produce. Clearly, these pests can impact the viability of vegetable and fruit productions by causing serious losses. 422 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

Figure 1. (A) Cabbage maggot-infested cauliflower, (B) springtail-infested lettuce, (C) painted bug-infested broccoli, (D) garden symphylan-infested cauliflower, (E) foxglove aphid-infested lettuce, and (F) strawberry fruit with cat-faced injury caused by western tarnished plant bug. Photo credit: Shimat V. Joseph (A–F field shots and impregnated insect images in A, B, C, and E) and UC statewide IPM program (impregnated insect images in D and F).

423 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

Table 1. List of Major Arthropod Pests and Their Primary Economic Hosts in the Central Coast of California Common Name

Scientific Name

Crops Affected

Surface Feeders: Chewing and Biting Beet armyworm

Spodoptera exigua (Hübner)

Lettuce, Brassicas, celery

Corn earworm

Helicoverpa zea (Boddie)

Lettuce, Brassicas, celery

Diamondbacked moth

Plutella xylostella L.

Brassicas

Cabbage looper

Trichoplusia ni (Hübner)

Brassicas

Imported cabbage worm

Pieris rapae (Linnaeus)

Brassicas

Green peach aphid

Myzus persicae (Sulzer)

Lettuce

Foxglove aphid

Aulacorthum solani (Kaltenbach)

Lettuce

Cabbage aphid

Brevicoryne brassicae L.

Brassicas

Western flower thrips

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)

Lettuce, pepper

Pea leaf miner

Liriomyza langei (Frick)

Lettuce, spinach

Serpentine leaf miner

L. trifolii (Burgess)

Lettuce, spinach

Vegetable leaf miner

L. sativae (Blanchard)

Lettuce, spinach

Surface Feeders: Sucking Painted bug

Bagrada hilaris (Burmeister)

Brassicas

Western tarnished plant bug

Lygus hesperus (Knight)

Strawberry, Brassicas, lettuce, celery

Two-spotted spider mite

Tetranychus urticae (Koch)

Strawberry, cranberries

Garden symphylan

Scutigerella immaculata (Newport)

All crops

Seedcorn maggot

Delia platura (Meigen)

Lettuce, Brassicas

Onion maggot

Delia antiqua (Meigen)

Lettuce, Brassicas

Cabbage maggot

Delia radicum L.

Brassicas

Springtail

Protaphorura fimata (Gisin)

Lettuce, broccoli

Bulb mite

Rhizoglyphus spp., Tyrophagus spp.

Lettuce, broccoli, onion

Subsurface Feeders


Understanding Pest Biology and Ecology Understanding the biology, phenology, ecology, and behavior of pests is critical for developing reliable management strategies. The central coast of California has a Mediterranean climate that is dry, with limited rain events and moderate temperatures (18–26 °C) throughout the year, which supports production of these specialty crops. Insects have several ways to deal with harsh winter freezing temperatures. Some transform into an inactive phase referred to as diapause (2). When insects undergo diapause, they reduce their physiological activity. Some insects go into diapause as adults, whereas others diapause as pupae or late larval stages. Some insects do not have the ability to diapause, especially those that have evolved in tropical conditions (e.g., pepper weevil, Anthonomus eugenii Cano or painted bug, Bagrada hilaris [Burmeister]) (3). They move to overwintering sites that provide protection from the harsh cold weather. Soil pests such as garden symphylan and springtails move deeper into the soil profile to evade freezing weather. Right after winter, most of the insects emerge from the overwintering stages. Because of scarcity of weed host or the age and decline of these overwintering weed hosts along the edge of the fields during the later part of winter, most of the insect pests move into crop fields, causing early-season feeding damage. Western tarnished plant bugs move into newly planted strawberry plants in March or April and affect developing fruits (4). Similarly, Delia flies emerge from the pupae and flock the Brassica crops for oviposition, causing serious early season damage. Once the weed hosts become abundant in an agro-ecosystem, pests such as the western tarnished plant bug, painted bugs, or caterpillar pests that initially develop on weed hosts, will migrate into the crop fields as the weed hosts become unsuitable for their population growth. During the early season, their populations tend to be small, but by late summer their populations can become noticeably large. Some subterranean pests such as cabbage maggots, garden symphylan, or springtails have distinctly different ecology than foliar feeders. Only the larval stages of cabbage maggot are pestiferous on Brassica crops, whereas the adults are free-living flies feeding on nectar and pollen. They develop on cruciferous weeds surrounding the field, and they move into crop fields for oviposition. Garden symphylan and springtails spend their entire life cycle in the soil (5, 6). They move into upper soil profile when the soil has adequate moisture and temperature, and they feed on the roots. Springtail can be a serious pest on direct-seeded crops such as lettuce and broccoli in the central coast (5). Garden symphylan feeds on the absorbing, active roots and can severely stunt the plant growth and development (6). In the central coast, growers begin planting the first crop of lettuce and other vegetables from late January to April. It is not uncommon to see two to three crops planted on the same field each year. However, the planting dates are not the same across the 7- to 15-acre parcels that span across the region, and one can easily see overlapping stages of the same crop across parcels. This random staggered planting of various crops within the agricultural landscape complicates the predictability of pest incidence and abundance. For example, if a nearby field is infested with pests such as aphids, western flower thrips, or cabbage maggots and is left unmanaged, it is likely that pest will move to the adjacent parcels. 425 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

Management Strategies When there is so much uncertainty on pest incidence and the threshold is very low, scouting for early detection is the central strategy for pest management. The licensed consultants (referred to as pest control advisors [PCA] in California) conduct very rigorous and routine scouting, as they check each field once or twice every week immediately after planting. In the central coast, pest management is primarily driven by an intensive use of insecticides (7). Historical reports of a pest problem on a crop in a geographic area during a specific season play a profound role in pest management decisions. Because the tolerance is very low for the pest or damage, application decisions are made with detection of even a single individual during the routine scouting. In some cases, preventative insecticide applications are made on a calendar basis regardless of pest detection. For example, lettuce is at a constant threat from aphid infestation. Once the aphid population is established on lettuce plants, management could be challenging, even by using multiple applications of effective insecticides. Pragmatically, once the center of the plant closes, PCAs have limited options to intervene with insecticide sprays. In addition, growers typically use insecticides to protect the final days leading to harvest (3–7 days before harvest), regardless of pest incidence, as they have no further opportunity. Thus, some PCAs resort to preventative approaches for pest management in lettuce. Conservation biological control is a viable tactic for pest control, especially for aphid management. Most organic and a few conventional growers use sweet alyssum (Lobularia maritime L. [Desv.]) plant stripes in a bed at every fifth to tenth bed to build the populations of natural enemies including syrphid flies, parasitic wasps, and so forth. These biological control agents are persistent and provide a reliable aphid control (8). Ironically, when it comes to harvest, growers tend to maintain the crop clean, devoid of any insects (even biological control agents such as ladybugs and syrphid fly larvae) as they can impact the produce quality and marketability (7). Organically certified growers manage this produce quality issue by finding niche markets that can tolerate some of these quality issues. Cultural controls continue to be a major tactic against some pests in certain crops. In strawberries, a vacuum machine, also referred to as a “bug vac,” is commonly used to control western tarnished plant bugs, although its efficacy against this pest is not consistent (9). Burning is an effective tactic practiced among asparagus growers against asparagus beetles (common asparagus beetle, Crioceris asparagi and spotted asparagus beetle, Crioceris duodecimpunctata) from March to June. Strawberry growers commonly use fences as a barrier to reduce dust deposition on the strawberry foliage, as it favors population increase of two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae [Koch]) (4). Some growers resort to moving their entire production to areas where the pest population is relatively low. Baby spinach growers face a tremendous pressure from leaf miners, and the current insecticide tool cannot provide adequate leaf miner control. The major damage from leaf miners is stippling injury as the adult flies punch wells to feed and oviposit on the surface of leaves (7). 426 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

Why Insecticides Are Important Most of the vegetables and fruits produced from the region are shipped to domestic and international markets. Export countries have set maximum residue levels and restrictions on the use of certain insecticides. Thus, growers carefully follow those restrictions to access the export markets. To meet the maximum residue level requirement, growers cannot use certain insecticides such as carbamates before a stipulated time interval before harvest. In these circumstances, certain pyrethroid and neonicotinoid insecticides are a good fit in the pest management programs (7). Insecticides (especially pyrethroids) play a critical role in the current management of vegetable and strawberry pests in the central coast (Table 2). Pyrethroid insecticides are used to control a broad range of pests including western tarnished plant bugs, cabbage looper larvae, painted bugs, leaf miner adults, garden symphylans, cabbage maggots, and springtails (4, 6, 7, 10–17). The western tarnished plant bug is a pest of strawberries and several vegetable crops such as celery, lettuce, and Brassicas (13, 14, 18, 19). There are limited options readily available to manage highly mobile pest. In spring and fall seasons, caterpillar pests, especially cabbage looper, attack lettuce, celery, and spinach (7). In all of these situations, pyrethroid insecticides are the effective control option. Similarly, pyrethroids are widely used to knock down leaf miner adults that can potentially feed and oviposit on baby spinach leaves.

Table 2. Major Arthropod Pests and Effective Insecticides Available for Management Pest Group

Effective Insecticide Class/Insecticides

Reference

Lepidopterans (e.g., beet armyworm)

Permethrina, chloranthraniliprolee, methoxyfenozidec

(10)

Aphids

Acetamipridb, imidaclopridb, sulfoxaflord

(10)

Painted bugs

Permethrina,

(11, 12)

dinotefuranb,

thiamethoxamb

a

Western tarnished plant bugs

Bifenthrina, sulfoxaflord, flupyradifuronef

(4, 13, 14)

Springtails

Lambda-cyhalothina, zeta-cypermethrina, clothianidinb

(5, 15, 16)

Garden symphylan

Zeta-cypermethrina, clothianidinb

(6)

Cabbage maggots

Zeta-cypermethrina, clothianidinb, cyantraniliprolee

(17)

Leaf miners

Permethrina b

Pyrethroid. Neonicotinoid. Diamide. f Butenolides.

c

Insect growth regulator.

(7) d

Sulfoxamine.


e

Similarly, neonicotinoid insecticides have a specific pest spectrum. They are effective against piercing and sucking pests such as aphids, thrips, western tarnished plant bugs, and painted bugs (14). These insecticides are systemic, and the pests get exposed when they feed on the vascular bundles of the plants. Besides sucking pests, they are effective against cabbage maggot larvae, a serious pest of Brassicas in the central coast (17). These insecticides are also effective on garden symphylan and springtails (6, 16). Clearly, these insecticides have a unique value in controlling some key pests in the central coast. The vegetable and small fruit industry prefers insecticides that have shorter preharvest intervals, possibly 24 h or less (7). A shorter preharvest interval helps growers prevent any quality issues such as insect feeding and oviposition just before harvest. In vegetables, it is common to find thrips, aphids, and other transient arthropods such as flies or wasps trapped between leaves, which directly affects product quality. Presence of beneficial insects such as larvae of lady beetles, syrphid flies, and lace wings will also impact product quality. Market price for the vegetable crops fluctuates, and produce with quality issues can result in complete rejection, especially when market value is low. In addition to a short preharvest interval, growers also prefer short reentry intervals of less than 12 h (7). A short reentry interval allows field crews to enter the field and frequently administer timely cultural practices such as irrigation, thinning, cultivation for weed management, and fertilizer application. In strawberries, short reentry intervals are even more important as fruit is harvested twice a week and therefore needs regular field visits. Insecticides such as pyrethroids are far safer to humans than organophosphates or carbamates because of their mammalian toxicity, which is lower than older chemistries (7). Because the human body can rapidly metabolize pyrethroid insecticides upon exposure, pre- and post–blood tests to measure insecticide residues in acetylcholine levels are not required for applicators as mandated when applying organophosphate or carbamate insecticides. This low-risk attribute is valued by growers in preventing unintended insecticide exposure. Another important factor that drives the use of certain insecticides such as pyrethroids and neonicotinoids is low cost compared to other newer insecticides such as cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole. The low cost (< $12.30 per ha for pyrethroids) of pyrethroids and neonicotinoids help growers to reduce the cost for pest management in general and remain competent in business. Because most of the older insecticides including pyrethroids are off-patent and have a wide use pattern in agriculture, there are several agrochemical companies manufacturing the same active ingredients, which drives the price lower. Ironically, the low cost of these insecticides can also lead to misuse, because these insecticides are thrown into the spray tank with no impending threat of pest infestation. In the central coast, particularly in the Salinas Valley, chlorpyrifos and diazinon are strictly regulated by the Central Coast Regional Water Board (20) after high levels of these insecticide residues were detected in water bodies (21), posing risks to nontarget organisms and the public health through contaminated water. Similarly, certain pyrethroid insecticides, particularly bifenthrin, cypermethrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin, were found at toxic levels attached to suspended sediments in the Salinas River (22–27). Once the 428 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

organophosphates were regulated, growers responded by switching to other broad-spectrum insecticides in the pyrethroid and neonicotinoid classes for pest management solutions. Now, with lingering regulations on pyrethroid (28) and neonicotinoid insecticides, growers may switch to carbamates such as oxamyl, which are far more toxic than pyrethroid insecticides (7).

Future Prospects for Pest Management Chemical control will continue to be an important tactic within integrated pest management framework for the major arthropod pests in the central coast. There are strategies that can reduce the non-target impacts of insecticides without compromising the pest management: (1) Pest monitoring. Scouting is the central component of pest management. Regular, more frequent, and rigorous scouting will help in early detection of the pest problem. This early detection will guide growers to take action based on the pest type, stage of the crop, and economic value for the harvested produce. The strategy will reduce the need for preventative or calendar-based insecticide use (29). (2) Insecticide choice. When a grower addresses a pest problem with an insecticide option, it is critical that the grower uses effective insecticides. Decision makers need to refer to published insecticide efficacy research or follow the recommendations in pest management guidelines for a pest on a specific crop (such as the University of California Pest Management Guidelines (4, 10, 19)). If effective insecticides are used against a pest, the need for repeated applications of insecticides can be reduced. Most of the recently registered insecticides are reduced-risk because of some unique properties and attributes. First, they have distinctly unique modes of action, such as ryanodine receptor modulators (e.g., chlorantraniliprole, cyantraniliprole, cyclantraniliprole) that affect the nerve and muscle cells, as opposed to most of the older chemistries such as organophosphates, and carbamates that broadly target the nervous system (especially the synapse region). Second, these insecticides target a specific pest spectrum due to specific modes of exposure and movement within the plant. Thus, they have minimum impact on nontarget organisms in the environment. Finally, unlike older chemistries that persist in the environment for extended time frames (e.g., months and years), these reduced-risk insecticides do not persist in the environment for longer periods; instead, they quickly disintegrate into nontoxic derivates (7). Although broad-spectrum insecticides such as organophosphates and carbamates will indiscriminately have an impact on all arthropods, including beneficial arthropods, they are still a useful tool for specific pest situations. The decision to use these broad-spectrum insecticides should be weighted when the population size of pests is far beyond threshold levels. Within a class of insecticides 429 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

(e.g., pyrethroid), the chemical properties such as water solubility, binding to organic matter, and half-life in soil and water, vary among insecticides (7). (3) Timing insecticide application. Timing of insecticide application to coincide with peak pest emergence will increase effectiveness of pest control. In direct-seeded broccoli, peak oviposition by adult D. radicum was observed a month after planting the seeds (30, 31). Thus, insecticide application can be steered toward that specific time frame window for effective control. For a few pests such as the artichoke plum moth, Platyptilia carduidactyla (Riley), a degree day model has been developed to predict the peak activity, and the model is used to determine timing of insecticide applications (32). In the central coast, winter months are usually warmer than in northern regions of California or other areas of the United States. This sometimes prevents insects from going to diapause phase, which can affect the synchronized development and emergence of insects in the spring months. Also, the micro-climate across a geographic area can vary and influence the rate of insect development within the region. Thus, only the first wave of insect emergence or activity can be accurately predicted for treatment decisions. (4) Targeted insecticide placement or delivery. To minimize the nontarget effects of insecticides, traditional foliar application insecticides should be reconsidered if using precision delivery technology such as insecticide seed dressing (33), tray drench with insecticide directly into the transplant plugs (34), and drip chemigations. These techniques can reduce off-site movement of insecticides and exposure to nontarget organisms. Seed dressing with neonicotinoid insecticides (e.g., clothianidin) has proved effective against key pests such as cabbage maggots, springtails, and painted bugs. Tray drench with systemic insecticides (e.g., chlorantraniliprole) has been effective against cabbage maggots for cauliflower and broccoli transplants. Drip chemigation restricts the applied insecticide to the root zone region, where the soil pests actively move, seeking growing roots to feed, as observed with garden symphylan or springtails. Similarly, narrow-banded spray applications along the seed line instead of broadcast application can target the region where pests are active. Cabbage maggot larvae oviposit around the crown area of the plant. The application of insecticides directed toward the crown area of the plants will reduce nontarget applications. (5) Resistance management. In order to prolong the effective control for a specific pest, it is critical that growers do not use insecticides with the same or similar mode of action on the same generation of the pest (35). There are factors to consider for preventing insect resistance to a specific insecticide class. First, understand the biology and ecology of the pest. Biology of an arthropod pest varies by species. In general, females produce eggs or give birth to live young, and the emerging larvae 430 Goh et al.; Pesticides in Surface Water: Monitoring, Modeling, Risk Assessment, and Management ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2019.

go through multiple larval stages before turning into inactive stage pupae that later emerge into adults. Some arthropod groups (e.g., hemipterans) have larvae that look similar to the adult forms, and they do not have pupal stage. Larval stages sometimes feed on a plant host or multiple plant hosts. In other cases, all the larvae stages develop in the soil medium, whereas other soil pests (e.g., springtails) complete all of the life stages in the soil medium. Taking into account the biology and ecology of the pest is critical when determining which insecticide should be used and the frequency to prevent development of insecticide resistance to the specific pest. (6) Cost. Recently registered insecticides (e.g., chlorantraniliprole, cyantraniliprole) are usually expensive compared to older chemistries such as pyrethroids, organophosphates, and carbamates. The high cost associated with newer insecticides will inevitably reduce nonessential uses and prevent nontarget exposure as well as off-site movement. (7) Compatible with other tactics. It is also critical that insecticides are nondisruptive to biological control agents. Secondary outbreak of pests is not uncommon in agriculture. Destruction of natural enemy populations by using insecticides (e.g., pyrethroids) will alter the delicate balance in the agroecosystem.

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the current status and future prospects of pest issues and challenges faced by strawberry and vegetable growers, PCAs, and allied industry in the central coast. This information can also serve as an outline for regulatory agencies in understanding how any potential changes might affect integrated pest management programs. The chapter highlights the importance of insecticides (7), biological control (8, 36), and cultural pest management practices (4, 9, 37) involved in the vegetable and fruit production in the central coast. It is clear that regulation of some insecticides will lead to overdependence on another set of insecticides, which certainly affects the production when overuse promotes insecticide resistance and loss of insecticide efficacy. More conscience-based decisions need to be reached by the industry on how various insecticides can be used for key pest management scenarios, considering the potential impacts on the environment. It is also critical that the regulatory agencies understand the need and fit for these key insecticides for pest management; without them, the industry will struggle to produce quality vegetables and fruits until a less disruptive strategy is sought to refine their integrated pest management programs.


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28. [CCRWQCB] Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board. Salinas River Watershed Sediment Toxicity and Pyrethroid Pesticides in Sediment TMDL. http://www.waterboards.ca.gov/centralcoast/water_issues/programs/ tmdl/docs/salinas/sed_tox/index.shtml (accessed September 20, 2018). 29. Joseph, S. V.; Bettiga, C. Captures of Protaphorura fimata (Collembola: Poduromorpha: Onychiuridae) on Beet and Potato Baits in the Salinas Valley of California. J. Entomol. Sci. 2016, 51, 79–86. 30. Joseph, S. V.; Martinez, J. Incidence of Cabbage Maggot (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) Infestation and Plant Damage in Seeded Brassica Fields in California’If s Central Coast. Crop Prot. 2014, 62, 72–78. 31. Joseph, S. V. Timing of Insecticide Application for Cabbage Maggot (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) Control in Seeded Turnip in Central Coast of California. Southwest. Entomol. 2016, 41, 625–632. 32. Bari, M. A.; Natwick, E. T. Artichoke Plume Moth. UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Artichoke; University of California Agricultural and Natural Resources Publication 3434; http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/ r6300111.html (accessed September 20, 2018). 33. Joseph, S. V.; Taylor, A. G. Effect of Insecticide-Coated Seeds on Protaphorura fimata (Collembola: Poduromorpha: Onychiuridae) Feeding Damage. J. Entomol. Sci. 2017, 52, 463–467. 34. Joseph, S. V.; Grettenberger, I.; Godfrey, L. Insecticides Applied to Soil of Transplant Plugs for Bagrada hilaris (Burmeister) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Management in Broccoli. Crop Prot. 2016, 87, 68–77. 35. [IRAC] Insecticide Resistance Action Committee. The IRAC Mode of Action Classification. http://www.irac-online.org/modes-of-action/ (accessed September 20, 2018). 36. Joseph, S. V.; Hoebeke, E. R.; McHugh, J. V. Rove Beetles of the Genus Aleochara Gravenhorst (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) Parasitizing the Cabbage Maggot, Delia radicum (L.) (Diptera: Anthomyiidae), in the Northern Central Coast of California. Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 2015, 117, 525–528. 37. Joseph, S. V.; Godfrey, L. D.; Bettiga, C. Influence of Interval Between PostHarvest Lettuce Residue Management and Subsequent Seeding of Broccoli on Cabbage Maggot (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) Infestation on Broccoli. J. Econ. Entomol. 2017, 110, 2172–2179.


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