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Dairy Products and Health: Recent Insights Michael H. Tunick, and Diane L. Van Hekken J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/jf5042454 • Publication Date (Web): 13 Nov 2014 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on November 16, 2014

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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry is published by the American Chemical Society. 1155 Sixteenth Street N.W., Washington, DC 20036 Published by American Chemical Society. Copyright © American Chemical Society. However, no copyright claim is made to original U.S. Government works, or works produced by employees of any Commonwealth realm Crown government in the course of their duties.

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Dairy Products and Health: Recent Insights

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Michael H. Tunick* and Diane L. Van Hekken

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Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, Eastern Regional

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Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department

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of Agriculture, 600 East Mermaid Lane, Wyndmoor, PA 19038 USA

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ABSTRACT:

Milk, cheese, yogurt, and other dairy products have

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long been known to provide good nutrition.

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contributors to the diets of many people include the protein,

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minerals, vitamins, and fatty acids present in milk.

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studies have shown that consumption of dairy products appears to

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be beneficial in muscle building, lowering blood pressure and

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low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and prevention of tooth

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decay, diabetes, cancer, and obesity.

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be provided by organic milk and by probiotic microorganisms

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using milk products as a vehicle.

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products and nutrition will improve our understanding of the

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connections between these products, the bioactive compounds in

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them, and their effects on the human body.

Recent

Additional benefits might

New research on dairy

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Major healthful

KEYWORDS: Dairy, health, nutrition

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INTRODUCTION

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Dairy products have long been advertised as being excellent

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sources of nutrition, and a large segment of the U.S. population

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consumes them as a part of a well-balanced diet.

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investigations have suggested benefits from dairy products

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beyond the classic “building strong bones.”

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milk and milk products play roles that were not imagined just

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one or two generations ago, such as benefits to gastrointestinal

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health and the immune system.1

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from the proteins, minerals, vitamins, lipids, and carbohydrates

36

in dairy products, the amounts of which have been tabulated by

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the USDA2 and are compared in Table 1.

Recent

Some components in

These advantageous effects arise

Earlier perceptions of dairy products being harmful to

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health are no longer supported by the evidence.

The most-cited

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general review in the past ten years that highlighted the

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advantages conveyed by dairy products was by Huth et al.3.

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review was written in 2005, and much has been accomplished since

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then.

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contributions to human health of the components in milk and

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products derived from milk.

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compounds will also be discussed, as will differences between

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organic milk and milk from herds under conventional management.

The

This paper will cover more recent findings concerning the

Using milk to deliver bioactive

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PROTEIN

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About 80% of the protein in milk consists of αs1-, αs2-, β-, and

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κ-caseins, and about 20% is classified as whey protein, which is

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mostly α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, and serum albumin.

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fat globule membrane (MFGM) protein represents a small

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percentage and is described in the lipids section below.

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Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations has

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recommended a new assessment method that ranks proteins based on

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the bioavailability of their amino acids, and milk protein

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scores high on their list.4 The Digestible Indispensable Amino

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Acid Score reveals that the true digestibility values of milk

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protein (95%) and of casein alone (94.1%) are higher than those

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of soy, pea, wheat, lupin, and rapeseed proteins (84-91.5%).4

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number of milk-derived peptides have been found to be bioactive

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and have been added to commercial products such as soft drinks.5

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Most of these products are not available in the US.

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benefits of dairy proteins are described below.

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Building and maintaining muscle mass.

Milk

The

A

The

Over one third of

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those who exercise say they seek out products that contain

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protein in order to help build and maintain strong, healthy

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muscles.6 Of the amino acids in whey protein, 26% are of the

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branched chain variety (notably leucine), which have been

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identified in building muscle mass.6

The amino acid composition

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of whey proteins is quite similar to that of skeletal muscle,

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making whey an effective anabolic supplement.6

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interested in physical fitness often supplement their diet with

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whey protein concentrate (containing less than 90% protein) or

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isolate (at least 90% protein).

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People who are

Whey protein powders are obtained from cheesemaking, which

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generates on average 10 kg liquid whey for every kilogram of

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cheese produced.

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1, contain little whey.

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600 participants supported a modest favorable effect of whey

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protein on body composition, with significant decreases in body

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weight and body fat when whey protein was provided as a dietary

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replacement and resistance exercise was performed.7

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Most cheeses, including the Cheddar in Table A meta-analysis of 14 studies and over

Older people often eat less than half of the recommended

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daily intake of protein, which may lead to sarcopenia, a loss of

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muscle mass. People are strongly motivated to keep their health

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and independence as they age, and they feel that maintaining

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strong bones and muscles will help them accomplish this.1

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Ingestion of whey protein by 15 subjects aged 60-85 has been

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found to improve accrual of skeletal muscle, and this increase

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of muscle mass was greater than that obtained by ingesting a

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mixture of the amino acids found in whey.8

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practical implications for the formulation of nutritional

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supplements.

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This finding may have

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Casein may also promote muscle building.

A study of 56

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novice weightlifters who exercised 1 h/d and 5 d/wk for 12 wk

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showed that consuming skim milk following their workouts

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resulted in greater development of lean muscle mass than

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consumption of soy or carbohydrate drinks.9

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Blood pressure.

The caseins facilitate absorption of Ca

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and phosphate in the small intestine and are the main substrates

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for production of bioactive peptides.10

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peptides are the product of either fermentation of milk by

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Lactobacilli or by digestion of milk protein in the small

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intestine, with the peptides absorbed intact.

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bioactive molecules are lactotripeptides, including Ile-Pro-Pro

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and Val-Pro-Pro, which have been the subject of much research.10

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Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-Pro-Pro are present in Swiss-type cheeses at

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concentrations ranging from 19 to 182 mg/kg.11

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lactotripeptides inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in

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vitro.

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that restricts blood vessels and leads to hypertension, and ACE

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from milk products have been shown to have a positive

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association with lower blood pressure.12

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Welsh men over a 22.8-yr period revealed that high milk intake

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(> 586 mL/d) was associated with lower systolic blood pressure

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(by 10.4 mm Hg) and less arterial stiffness.

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which had some negative effects, dairy products were found be

These small dairy

Some of these

These

ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a hormone

A study of over 2500

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Apart from butter,

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cardioprotective.13

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Rotterdam suburb who were at least 55 years old showed that

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consumption of low-fat dairy products was associated with a 20%

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reduction in incidence of hypertension.14

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recent work concluded that the preponderance of evidence

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indicates a strong likelihood that eating dairy products helps

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to lower blood pressure.15

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Dental caries.

A study of over 2200 residents of a

A review of other

Cheese has been tied to protection against

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dental caries, or tooth decay, through a series of mechanisms

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that are partially understood and involve more than the presence

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of Ca.

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inhibit bacteria, engage in competitive exclusion of enamel

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binding sites, improve buffering capacity in the pellicle

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surrounding teeth, reduce enamel demineralization, and improve

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enamel remineralization.16

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were removed as factors in one study, milk was found to largely

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prevent demineralization of teeth, apparently due to proteose-

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peptone, which is derived from β-casein and is a minor component

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of whey proteins.17

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It appears that casein-derived bioactive peptides

Learning and memory.

Even when casein, lactose, and fat

A peptide from β-casein, β-

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casomorphin-5 (Tyr-Pro-Phe-Pro-Gly), is a µ-opioid receptor

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agonist (other such agonists, such as morphine, are analgesics)

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and may assist in learning and memory.

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dose of β-casomorphin-5 has been shown to alleviate impairment of

Administration of a low

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learning and memory in tests on mice.18

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important for the psychomotor development of infants, with

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breast milk having more of an effect than bovine milk.19

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Cancer.

β-casomorphins are

Studies have shown that the minor milk protein

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lactoferrin has anticancer properties.

In research on mice

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containing a human gene that induces lung tumors, lactoferrin

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significantly decreased the proliferation of cancer cells and

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lung cell inflammation.20

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breast cancer cell lines21 and a lactoferrin peptide was shown to

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reduce DNA damage from colon cancer cells.22

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succeeded in cloning peptides from lactoferrin and αs1-casein

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into Streptococcus thermophilus, a common starter culture for

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cheese and yogurt, which would optimize the activity of these

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peptides.23

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cancer cells was demonstrated by peptides isolated from the

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waste whey from manufacture of water buffalo Mozzarella; β-

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casomorphin-5 and -7 have been identified in this material.24

Lactoferrin decreased the viability of

Our laboratory has

A significant antiproliferative effect on CaCo2

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MINERALS

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More correctly referred to as dietary elements, Ca, Cu, Fe, K,

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Mg, Mn, Na, P, Se, and Zn are found in dairy products and are

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responsible for a number of essential processes in the body.25,26

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A summary is shown in Table 2.

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An adequate Ca intake increases bone mineral density during

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skeletal growth and prevents bone loss and osteoporotic

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fractures in the elderly.27

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intake of dairy Ca is 50-100% more effective than supplemental

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Ca.5

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reduced-fat, decrease accumulation of body fat and accelerate

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loss of weight and fat while dieting.28

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and animal study using a high-fat diet containing a milk mineral

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concentrate, the dietary elements significantly attenuated the

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increase in total and LDL cholesterol concentrations; HDL did

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not decrease.29

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through formation of soaps, and also decreases serum cholesterol

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levels through binding of calcium phosphate with bile acids,

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which have to be regenerated in the liver from LDL and total

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cholesterol.30

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Ca in the diet,3 have been cited as the best sources of Ca due to

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their high content of this mineral, high absorptive rate, and

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relatively low cost.31

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Clinical trials have shown that

Ca and other minerals in dairy products, whether full- or

In a short-term human

Ca reduces absorption of fat in the intestine

Dairy products, which supply at least 70% of the

Obesity, glucose intolerance, hypertension, and

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dyslipidemia (elevated blood lipids) are components of metabolic

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syndrome, which increases the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus

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(T2DM) and heart disease.

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syndrome and T2DM appear to decrease as dairy food consumption

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increases, a result that was associated with intake of dairy

Components of insulin resistance

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foods, Ca, and vitamin D.32

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28-60, a higher intake of dairy products was associated with

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improvement in the metabolic profile in a 5-y period, and a

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higher Ca intake was associated with a lower 5-y increase of the

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BMI and waist circumference.33

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observed in the 300 women in the study, however, which the

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authors suggest may have been due to sex-related behaviors and

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attitudes toward diet and lifestyle.

In a French study of 288 men aged

No significant difference was

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VITAMINS

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Milk is a source of all vitamins except vitamin C, which is

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broken down by pasteurization.

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for vision and is involved in immune function, reproduction, and

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cellular communication, differentiation, and growth.34

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B1 (thiamine) helps with metabolism of branched-chain amino

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acids, carbohydrates, and fatty acids.26

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is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and

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proteins.26

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NAD and NADP, which are responsible for catabolism of alcohol,

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carbohydrates, fats, and protein, and synthesis of

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macromolecules.26

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than 100 enzyme reactions, mostly concerned with protein

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metabolism, and is involved in cognitive development and immune

Vitamin A (retinol) is critical

Vitamin

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)

Vitamin B3 (niacin) is the precursor for coenzymes

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) has a role in more

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function.34

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amino acids.34

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hemoglobin and to maintain nerve cells.34

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levels are fortified in milk to help with Ca and phosphate

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absorption, which promotes bone growth.34

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is an antioxidant that helps prevent cell injury.34

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(phylloquinone) and vitamin K2 (the menaquinones), produced by

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bacteria in fermented dairy products, are necessary for blood

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clotting.26

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Vitamin B9 (folate) is used to make DNA, RNA, and Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) helps to create DNA and Vitamin D (calciferol)

Vitamin E (tocopherol) Vitamin K1

A meta-analysis of 16 studies showed that consumption of

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200 g dairy products per day resulted in a 6% reduction of risk

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of T2DM, with a significant association between reduction of

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incidence of T2DM and intake of cheese, yogurt, and low-fat

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dairy products.35

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correlation with the presence of vitamins D and K2, which have

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recently been linked to a reduced risk of T2DM.36

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used daily food diaries instead of retrospective data (which

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involves a recall period ranging up to a year) and also found a

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reduced risk of T2DM.37

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fermented dairy food (cheese and yogurt) and the result was also

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attributed to vitamin K2 generated by bacterial fermentation.

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meta-analysis of over 26,000 cases of colorectal cancer showed

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that higher consumption of dairy products reduced the risk of

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colon cancer, with Ca and vitamin D being associated with a

The authors attributed the cheese and yogurt

Another study

This relationship was only observed in

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reduction of risk of cancer.38

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subjects also showed a decreased risk of colorectal cancer with

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increased consumption of calcium and vitamin D.39

A study of over 800 Japanese

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LIPIDS

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The lipids in milk are in the form of droplets, consisting

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mostly of triacylglycerols, surrounded by a MFGM containing 60%

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protein and 40% lipids, including polar lipids (phospholipids

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and sphingolipids), cholesterol, and some minor components.40 The

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polar lipids amount to less than 40 mg/100 g milk, but

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contribute biological activity such as inhibition of colon

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cancer and intestinal pathogens.40

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be related to cognitive function.41

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glycoproteins such as butyrophilin, which may suppress multiple

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sclerosis, and BRCA1 and BRCA2, which appear to inhibit breast

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cancer.42

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Phosphatidylserine seems to The MFGM proteins are mostly

Milkfat, which is approximately 72% saturated, 25%

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monounsaturated, and 3% polyunsaturated (w/w), carries flavor

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compounds as well as fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.43

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Lipids, though essential for humans, have historically been

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thought to elevate blood cholesterol and therefore been

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considered as dangerous to health.

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changing in recent years.

This attitude has been

A meta-analysis of 76 studies

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concluded that guidelines encouraging high consumption of

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polyunsaturated fatty acids and low consumption of total

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saturated fats is not clearly supported by the evidence.44

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Moreover, dairy products and other foods high in saturated fat

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contain an array of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, each

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of which affect metabolism of lipoproteins in various ways.

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These foods also contribute significant amounts of other

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nutrients, which may be beneficial.

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may be healthful are as follows.

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Cardiovascular disease.

Areas in which milk lipids

Observational studies and meta-

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analyses have shown no connection between the intake of milk fat

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and the risk of cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease,

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or stroke.

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consumption of full-fat natural cheese significantly lowers low-

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density lipoproteins (LDL or “bad cholesterol”) compared with

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consumption of butter containing the same total fat and

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saturated fat content.45

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level of Ca in cheese as well as the presence of fermentation

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products from the bacteria.

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study of 1750 Iranian adults was associated with higher HDL and

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lower LDL, cholesterol, and triglycerides.46

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theorized that their results could be due to consumption of Ca

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and fermenting bacteria.

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products have beneficial effects on plasma lipids and

In fact, most clinical studies have shown that

These results may be due to the high

Higher consumption of cheese in a

The authors

Some studies have shown that yogurt

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lipoproteins, although these advantages appear to be specific to

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the strain of bacteria used to ferment the product.45

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Anticarcinogenesis.

In 1996, the National Academy of

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Sciences stated that conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is the only

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fatty acid that definitely inhibits carcinogenesis in

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experimental animals.48

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models have shown that relatively low dietary levels of CLA

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inhibit multistage carcinogenesis at different sites.49

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has also indicated that CLA influences weight control, possibly

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by exerting an effect on hypothalamic appetite regulation.50

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is a mixture of isomers of linoleic acid (18:2), with the

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predominant isomer, rumenic acid (cis-9, trans-11 18:2), being

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the biologically active form.51

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sources of CLA in the human diet, and its concentration in these

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products is not affected by heat processing.52

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Many studies using in vivo and in vitro

Research

CLA

Dairy products are the major

Trans fatty acids have been implicated in increases in LDL

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and decreases in high-density lipoprotein (HDL or “good

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cholesterol”) in humans.

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trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fats, predominately elaidic

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acid (trans-9 18:1).

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amounts in bovine milk.

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milkfat is rumenic acid and most of the rest is vaccenic acid

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(trans-11 18:1).53

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anticarcinogenic properties in humans54 and vaccenic acid may

These effects have been tied to the

Elaidic acid is present in only trace One-fourth of the trans fatty acids in

Rumenic acid may be associated with

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decrease tumor growth and the risk of coronary heart disease.55

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On average, humans convert about a fifth of dietary vaccenic

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acid into rumenic acid.56

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Obesity.

Many people believe that increasing their intake

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of dairy fat will result in an increase in weight.

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opposite appears to be the case.

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rural Swedish men revealed that a high intake of dairy fat was

320

associated with a lower risk of developing central obesity

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(ratio of waist and hip measurements > 1) and a low dairy fat

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intake was associated with a higher risk of central obesity.57

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Moreover, a 9-yr study of over 19000 Swedish women aged 40-55

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showed that at least one serving per day of whole milk and sour

325

milk and of cheese was inversely associated with weight gain.58

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The mechanisms for this effect may involve elevated Ca levels

327

resulting in more fecal fat excretion,59 oxidation of fat by Ca,60

328

or satiety effects.

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However, the

A 12-yr study of over 1500

A study of 70 overweight and obese individuals whose diet

330

was supplemented with whey protein experienced significant

331

decreases in blood triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL, and

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insulin levels over 12 wk.61

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effects of whey protein on cholesterol biogenesis, adsorption,

334

or excretion.

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men and women on a calorie-restricted diet showed that high

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dairy consumption significantly increased fat loss.62

The results may have been due to

Another 12-wk study of 108 overweight and obese

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authors attributed the effectiveness of the dairy foods to

338

suppression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, which has been

339

implicated in retention of fat.

340

Inflammation.

A study of sheep milk cheese rich in CLA

341

showed a significant reduction in inflammatory parameters such

342

as interleukin.63

343

anti-inflammatory properties and may also protect against liver

344

damage.64

Phospholipids have been identified as having

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CARBOHYDRATES AND OLIGOSACCHARIDES

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Lactose comprises over 99% of the carbohydrates in milk, with

349

citrate accounting for 0.2%.

350

citrate breakdown, but no health effects have been reported.

351

Lactose stimulates intestinal absorption of Ca65 and can be

352

enzymatically hydrolyzed in the gut to form galacto-

353

oligosaccharides which are readily utilized by Bifidobacteria

354

and contribute to improved digestive function.1

355

the world population is lactose intolerant and cannot digest

356

this carbohydrate, but lactose-reduced milk, developed in our

357

laboratory in the 1970s, allows consumers to drink milk without

358

suffering digestive issues.66

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fermented dairy products, lactic acid bacteria break down the

360

lactose into digestible glucose and galactose.

Some dairy flavors arise from

The majority of

In cheese, yogurt, and other

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Bovine milk contains about 1 g oligosaccharides/L whereas

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the concentration in human milk is estimated at 7-12 g/L.5

363

Oligosaccharides in milk pass through the upper gastrointestinal

364

tract and are bioavailable to beneficial bacteria in the colon,

365

stimulating their growth.

366

inhibiting the binding of pathogens and toxins by competing with

367

the host's binding sites.67

368

chains attached and are also protective against microbes,

369

toxins, and viruses in newborns.68

These probiotics are credited with

Glycoproteins have oligosaccharide

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HEALTH ASPECTS OF MILK COMPONENTS IN COMBINATION

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The various components of dairy products confer health benefits

374

when in combination, and the substitution of milk products with

375

other foods adversely impacts the balance of nutrients consumed.

376

Replacing dairy products with foods containing equivalent

377

amounts of Ca has been shown to alter the overall nutritional

378

profile of the diet, affecting intake of protein, magnesium,

379

phosphorus, potassium, and vitamins A, B2, B12, and D.69

380

investigators concluded that eating nondairy Ca replacement

381

foods (such as bony fish, Ca-set tofu, leafy greens, or

382

fortified soy drink, rice drink, or orange juice) is not

383

realistic because these foods are rarely consumed in the amounts

384

needed to replace milk products.69

Some studies have

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demonstrated advantages of milk products arising from

386

interactions among the components, as outlined below.

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Cognitive function.

In a study of nearly 1000 people,

388

participants who ate dairy products at least once per day scored

389

significantly higher in several tests of cognitive function

390

compared with those who rarely or never consumed dairy food.70

391

The reason is not yet known but is likely due to a synergistic

392

effect among several milk components.

393

methodology of eight studies about dementia pointed out that no

394

research has been conducted on dairy intake and cognitive

395

function across all ages, but that a beneficial effect is

396

probably present.71

397

Satiety.

A review of the

Three fourths of shoppers in a survey said they

398

are interested in satiety, the feeling of being full after

399

eating.6

400

that dairy products are viewed by consumers as reasonably

401

satiating; they are not as filling as fruit, meat, nuts, or

402

pasta, but they are on a par with oatmeal and soup, and are

403

considered more filling than snacks such as cookies and potato

404

chips.6

405

weight loss in a study of 49 people, but did increase blood

406

levels of a particular peptide which was associated with greater

407

satiety and reduced fat intake.72

The dairy industry has conducted research revealing

A diet rich in Ca and dairy food did not result in

Consumption of milk products

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may therefore have an indirect role in improving health by

409

enhancing satiety and thus aiding loss of fat and body weight.73

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Mortality.

A meta-analysis of over 62,000 study

411

participants showed no connection between consumption of milk

412

and all-cause mortality, and a modest inverse correlation with

413

cardiovascular disease.74

414

associated with dairy food intake in a meta-analysis of five

415

studies in England and Wales covering 509,000 deaths in 2008.75

416

The same laboratory found that the risk of stroke also appears

417

decrease with increasing dairy intake, though further research

418

in this area is needed.

419

inhibition of platelet aggregation.76

420

there was a large discrepancy between evidence from long-term

421

studies and perceptions of harm from dairy foods.

All-cause mortality showed a reduction

The cause of this effect may be The authors concluded that

422 423

DELIVERY OF BIOACTIVES

424 425

Dairy products are the primary vehicles for probiotic bacteria,

426

which commonly include species of Lactobacilli, Lactococci, and

427

Bifidobacteria.

428

benefits by improving the balance of microorganisms in the

429

intestine by enhancing the population of beneficial bacteria and

430

suppressing pathogens.77

431

6 showed that milk fortified with Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG

Probiotics are live strains that confer

A study of 571 Finnish children aged 1-

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19 432

stimulated immune response and reduced respiratory infections

433

and days of absence from school.78

434

Casein films exhibit high tensile strength, making them

435

good tablet coatings, and drug-milk prepatrations seem to confer

436

higher bioavailability than drugs alone.79

437

as a natural delivery system, which should lead to their use as

438

nanocarriers.79

439

complexes with other macromolecules, possess good gelation,

440

self-assembly, and surface properties, and exhibit pH-responsive

441

gel swelling behavior that helps with programmable release.80

442

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the major extractable

443

polyphenol found in green tea and the most bioactive one, has

444

been shown to prevent proliferation of colon cancer cells.

445

EGCG was nanoencapsulated in casein micelles of skim milk, the

446

proliferation of HT-29 cancer cells in vitro was decreased.81

447

Encapsulation did not decrease the bioavailability of EGCG,

448

which may lead to the development of other delivery systems

449

using casein.

450

mutagenic and anticancer properties, and thymol, an

451

antimicrobial, can be encapsulated in sodium caseinate,

452

improving solubility and presumably bioavailability.82,83

They bind ions and small molecules, form

When

Curcumin, which may have anti-inflammatory, anti-

453 454

Casein micelles act

ORGANIC VS. CONVENTIONAL MILK

455

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In the US, the “organic” regulations for foods were established

457

by the US Department of Agriculture under the National Organic

458

Program in 2000.84

459

as follows.

460

approved organic practices for a full year before the milk that

461

is produced can be certified and sold as organic.

462

must be given feed that is 100% organic, and must obtain a

463

minimum average of 30% of their dry matter intake from pasture

464

during a minimum 120-day grazing season.

465

treated, and if the medicine is not on the approved-for-organic

466

list the animal is no longer considered organic and must be

467

removed from the herd.

468

organic animals must be documented.

469

antibiotics, genetic engineering, and cloning cannot be used in

470

organic systems.

471

regulations, whether they raise animals or grow feed for them.84

472

The most important rules for dairy farms are

Animals must be fed and managed according to

The animals

Sick animals must be

All feed and medicine given to the Growth hormones,

The farming system must adhere to all

The composition of organic and conventional milk are

473

similar except for some of the fatty acids.85

474

is whether the fatty acid profile of milk obtained from organic

475

dairies is more healthful than the milkfat from conventional

476

(not certified as organic) dairies.

477

linolenic, eicosapentaenoic, and docosapentaenoic) are important

478

for cell membrane function, and many studies have shown the

479

beneficial effects of ω-3 fatty acids in cancer prevention,

The key question

CLA and ω-3 fatty acids (α-

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21 480

cardiovascular disease, and infant development.86

481

acids also have positive roles in some mental conditions,

482

including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dementia,

483

and depression.86

484

eicosatrienoic, and arachidonic) are also necessary for health

485

maintenance; the optimum ratio of ω-6 to ω-3 is thought to be

486

about 2.3, but Americans are consuming these fatty acids at a

487

ratio around 10.87

488

processors from seven regions throughout the U.S. showed that,

489

averaged over a year, organic milk contained 25% fewer ω-6 fatty

490

acids and 62% more ω-3 fatty acids than conventional milk,

491

leading to a favorable ratio of the two (Table 3).87

492

dairy farmers can elevate the levels of CLA in milk and the

493

cheese manufactured from it by supplemeting the diet of their

494

cows, e.g. with sunflower oil.88

495

pasteurization have little effect on CLA concentration.5

ω-3 fatty

ω-6 fatty acids (linoleic, 8,11,14-

A 2013 analysis of milk from 14 commercial

Organic

Homogenization and

496

Our laboratory has completed a 3-yr study of milk from two

497

adjacent farms; one was conventional and the other transitioned

498

to organic during the first year (Tunick et al., submitted).

499

The fatty acid analyses focused on CLA and the most predominant

500

ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids, linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid,

501

respectively.

502

contained 26% fewer ω-6 fatty acids and 41% more ω-3 fatty acids

503

than conventional milk (Table 4).

In the final year of the study, the organic milk

As in the national study,88

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the CLA content of the organic milk was 18% higher than that of

505

the conventional milk.

506

desirable in the organic milk.

The ω-6 to ω-3 ratio was also more

507 508

FUTURE EFFORTS

509 510

Despite advertising and educational efforts, many consumers are

511

still not fully aware that dairy foods and dairy ingredients are

512

a good source of high quality proteins.6

513

be taught about the benefits of milkfat and of milk in general.

514

These efforts will have to be supported by further research on

515

the mechanisms whereby milk components benefit humans.

516

scientists continue to investigate food as it relates to health,

517

people will realize the importance of dairy products in the

518

diet.

The public should also

519 520

AUTHOR INFORMATION

521 522

Corresponding Author

523

*(M.H.T.) Phone: (215) 233-6454. E-mail:

524

[email protected].

525 526

Notes

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As

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23 527

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Mention of

528

trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely

529

for the purpose of providing specific information and does not

530

imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of

531

Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

532 533

REFERENCES

534 535

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components, and essential amino acids: mechanisms underlying

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findings and methodological issues. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn.

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P. K.; Edwards, A. L.; Reimer, R. A. Effect of a dairy-and

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restriction in overweight and obese adults: a randomized

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Casein-based formulations as promising controlled release drug

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nanoparticles for enhanced dispersibility and bioactivity. Soft

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nanoencapsulated by sodium caseinate: physical and antilisterial

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properties. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 1649-1657.

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elevated conjugated linoleic acid levels caused by dietary

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Table 1.

Constituents of milk, Cheddar cheese, and yogurt.2

Milk, 3.25%

Cheddar

Yogurt,

fat, vitamin

cheese

plain

D added

low-fat

Proximates (g/100 g) Protein Lipid Carbohydrate

3.15 3.25 4.80

24.90 33.14 1.28

5.25 1.55 7.04

Minerals (mg/100 g) Calcium Copper Iron Magnesium Manganese Phosphorus Potassium Selenium Sodium Zinc

113 0.025 0.03 10 0.004 84 132 0.0037 43 0.37

721 0.031 0.68 28 0.010 512 98 0.0014 621 3.11

183 0.013 0.08 17 0.004 144 234 0.0031 70 1.51

Vitamins (µg/100 g) A B1 (thiamine) B2 (riboflavin) B3 (niacin) B6 (pyridoxine) B9 (folate) B12 (cobalamin) C D E K1

46 46 169 89 36 5 0.45 0 1.3 70 0.3

265 27 375 80 74 18 0.83 0 0.6 290 2.8

14 44 214 114 49 11 0.56 0.8 0 30 0.2

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Table 2.

Dietary elements required by humans and commonly found

in dairy products.26

Function

Ca Mg

P

K

Na Mn Cu

Muscular activity, neural transmission, vascular constriction and dilation; maintaining normal acid-base balance, osmotic pressure, and water balance











Forming and maintaining bones









Blood clotting

 





Energy metabolism



Component of cell membranes, nucleic acids, and nucleotides Components of enzyme systems or cofactors in enzymatic reactions

Zn Se Fe





Defense against oxidative damage Structural role in some proteins Oxygen and electron transport 876

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Table 3.

Concentrations of selected fatty acids in organic and

conventional milk from national study.87

Fatty acid, abbreviation

Organic

Conventional

milk

milk

(mg/100 g milk) Conjugated linoleic acid, CLA

22.7

19.2

25.5

15.9

Eicosapentaenoic, 20:5

3.3

2.5

Docosapentaenoic, 22:5

4.4

3.7

63.9

85.6

8,11,14-Eicosatrienoic, 20:3

3.2

4.3

Arachidonic, 20:4

4.8

5.8

ω-3 fatty acids α-Linolenic, 18:3

ω-6 fatty acids Linoleic, 18:2 (nonconjugated)

All fatty acids

ω-6/ ω-3 ratio

3108

3098

2.28

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Table 4.

Concentrations of selected fatty acids in organic and

conventional milk in study by our laboratory (Tunick et al., submitted).

Fatty acid, abbreviation

Organic

Conventional

milk

milk

(mg/100 g milk) Conjugated linoleic acid, CLA

32.8

27.7

29.7

21.1

ω-3 fatty acid α-Linolenic, 18:3

ω-6 fatty acid Linoleic, 18:2 (nonconjugated)

All fatty acids

ω-6/ ω-3 ratio

101

137

3622

3565

3.40

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6.49