DISREGARDING DEPARTMENT FRONTIERS HIGH SCHOOL. SCRANTON, PENNSYLVANIA L. PAUL MILLER.CENTRAL
There is no law that only chemistry may be taught in high-school chemistry classrooms, or that chemistry may never be mentioned i n high-school classes in other subjects. The chemistry teacher can connect hisiory of chemistry with general history, and the history teacher can refer to contributions of chemists toward industrial progress. The chemistry teacher must pay some attention to grammatical sins, and the English teacher can to advantage add Dr. Slosson to the list of approved authors. Teachers of chemistry and of mathematics, as well as teachers of chemistry and vocational subjects, i n the high schools can also get together with profit.
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One of our biggest problems, and one that proper practices will go far toward solving, is that of finding points of contact between high-school chemistry teaching and the teaching of other high-school subjects. As an important factor in the general scheme of secondary education, chemistry cannot afford to isolate itself or to permit other subjects to be isolated. All branches of study should be contributing toward the common objectives of reorganized secondary education. They can do so, effectively, only by recognizing one another's existence. Even the best organized, most self-sufficient high-school chemistry department is only a part of the school, and not an independent institution. Other departments, also, are merely contributing agencies toward the important general objectives. Cooperative efforts can do much to help the ~ u p i l srealize some of these common objectives. The high-school chemistry teacher can do much to realize the aims of science teaching by adopting methods which totally disregard the traditional boundary lines that seem to separate his department from other ones. He can also offer urgent invitations to have his own territory invaded by teachers of other departments. There appear to be promising present-day tendencies toward such cooperation. The advocacy of the theory may still be commoner than the practice. But the trend has appeared, which is something. "Can we not," asks Dr. Glenn Frank ( I ) , "provide ways and means for carrying on greater interstate commerce of mind across the academic frontiers that separate our departments?" We can if we will, in the high schools. The colleges, toward which the above question was especially directed, have sedulously established and maintained the boundary lines. The college-trained high-school teachers have erected and fortified imitation frontiers in the high schools. All that is now needed is the development of disdainful disregard for those artificial barriers in the high schools,coupledwith theworking of the ways and means, to get the "interstate commerce of mind" moving across the lines. 1069
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1932
Just as the coordination of the sciences appeared in practice first in the high schools, in the general science courses, so the reciprocity among departments may perhaps come into successful operation in the high schools long before it does in the colleges. At any rate, the "greater interstate commerce" in the high schools is our present concern in the discussion regardless of conditions in the colleges. The intelligent high-school teacher of today gives evidence of determining his educational practices more largely by reference to the needs of his pupils than to the precedents upheld by his under-graduate subjed-matter instructors. It would hardly be the part of wisdom a t the present time to advise any very radically different administrative arrangement of secondary-school curricula and classes. Experience to date in every-day teaching situations indicates the advisability of having particular class groups study biology in rooms equipped specificallyfor laboratory work and for demonstrations in biology. Definite groups studying physics must report at definite times to rooms in which the necessary apparatus is in readiness for use. Chemistry classes must meet where supplies are accessible, for the fundamentals in chemistry must be learned from chemicals. While tried methods, up to now, indicate that these physical conditions are needed for the teaching of science subjects, experience has certainly not proved either that science matter exclusively must be dealt with in these specially equipped rooms or, on the other hand, that science subject matter must be absolutely avoided ih other high-school classrooms not so e equipped. The chemistry teacher can very profitably connect developments in science with general history; may legitimately introduce easily read articles in foreign languages that the pupils are studying; must necessarily pay some attention to the grammatical and rhetorical sins committed in the oral and written efforts of his buddmg scientists, and cannot possibly avoid, even if he tried, the direct and undisguised teaching of mathematics. Now, if one tenon of a board is to dovetail properly with a second, the second must be so made as to dovetail with the first. The other departments must be encouraged to cooperate in a friendly spirit of helpfulness with the science department. These seem usually to be ready and willing to travel the distance x, and if x and y be equal, little difficulty need be experienced in finding place for facts of science history and biography in history and English classes, and for problems relating to science subject matter in mathematics. This discussion can easily be taken out of the realm of theoretical possibilities. Some instances of actually operative cooperation can he offered. Several history classes are using, as collateral reading, Williams' "History of Science" (2) and numerous single volumes of apopnlar nature on science, history, and biography which have been placed in the school library.
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The effort is being made by the history and science departments, jointly, to present a composite picture of world history and scientific progress. It happens that this attempt is being made in classes in the eleventh year. Subsequent experiment may indicate that such cooperation should start earlier. Stress on chronology of events in science history has been experimented with in general science classes, independently of history classes. Little time can be allowed in the crowded schedules of the chemistry classes, for science history as such. Important as the latter surely is, it must come somewhat incidentally in the science work. History teachers, however, can hardly avoid giving the outstanding inventions and discoveries of science prominent positions in the pictures which they paint of world progress. They leave the details of science theories and laws, of course, to the science teachers. Their province is to show the interactions between scientific discoveries and civilization, the scientific causes and effects in human progress, and the parallel chronologies of events in science history and in general history. "The student may be given practice in the use of his foreign languages, and a t the same time impressed with their usefulness, if he is required to look up and report original articles in the literature. His interest in such exercises will be all the keener if the paper assigned to hi bears the name of some distinguished figure in chemical history" (3). In October, 1926, the JO~RNAI. OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION published an address by Paul Sabatier, in the originat French (4). It dealt in an interesting way with the work of Berthelot. Students in the advanced French classes, also studying chemistry, translated this address. More connections of this sort with foreign languages could be made if suitable material were readily obtainable. Introduction of science subject matter in language courses can be recommended by science teachers, but cannot be accomplished by them. The advisability of using such subject matter occasionally must be seen and acted upon by the language teachers themselves. Much material of this nature could be made available. It would do a great deal to aid in elevating the standards of reading matter in language courses. All of us recall having gone through painful translations of meaningless tales in language courses. Moderate use of easily read material on science topics in the eleventh and twelfth years, in modern language study, would be of assistance to the many students who are now preparing for scientific courses in the colleges and technical schools, and who will there need to do reading in "scientific" French and German. These students could easily be differentiated if others in the classes objected. The others, then, could continue with the fairy tales and somewhat trivial scenarios. The chemistry teacher, on the other hand, is blind to innumerable opportunities, if he does not make almost daily reference to word deriva-
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1932
tions and comparative philology. The acquisition of a vocabulary of the words used most commonly in science and industry is no small part of the science student's job. We have been told many times not to teach words. Merely words, of course not. Rut words in their scientific relationships, decidedly yes. Calculations of scores of tests need not be offeredto convince any experienced chemistry teacher that one of the prime difficulties encountered by pupils in learning facts in science is the understanding of the words used in presenting the facts. The teacher can often drive the meaning of a word home by giving the derivation. Recent action of the college entrance examination board has encouraged the use of science subject matter in the English classes. The board has recognized and stated the fact that the reading of essays on science topics may have as much value in English literature study as novels and short stories. Several textbook publishers have taken the next step, and turned out most creditable collections of readable science essays. There is no reasonable argument against the introduction of such material into the English classes. Teachers and pupils alike give evidence of being bored by some of the traditional readings in English literature. The science teachers can do a notable service by calling the attention of English teachers to suitable publications in cases where the latter are not the more wide-awake of the two, and have not already put such'books in the course. A book of science essays (5),which is perhaps typical of what we may look forward to in this direction, brings the science and English classes into a most intimate and satisfactory relationship. Every page in this book is a specimen of carefully written English. More, the essays are interesting, and the facts included are significant ones. No style for style's sake. The names of the authors of the essays in the table of contents insure both good English and good science. Of additional value in a book of this sort are the lists of readings aiter all of the essays. The science books listed are the same ones to which the well-informed science teacher refers his class constantly. With content such as that, creeping stealthily into the English courses, some splendid results may reasonably be expected. Written and oral reports on science readings should be given credit, in both English and chemistry. The English teacher should not be converted into a teacher of science, of course, and need a t no time deal directly with the details and intricacies of science subject matter. But on the contrary, the science teacher must forever be a teacher of English. And he must deal with rather minor matters every day, in grammar and rhetoric. "The teacher of chemistry should, in common with other teachers, combat the apparently all-too-prevalent student notion that English
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composition is an end in itself, utterly irrelevant to scientific reports, examination papers, classroom recitations, and business and personal letters" (3). Testimony can be offered here that the use by teachers in the science department of identically the same rules as those laid down in the English department for the preparation of all written reports, tests (other than completion or true-false) and final examinations, has resulted in most decided improvements in the neatness, legibility, spelling, and grammatical form of much of the written work in all science subjects. Credit is given toward the student's grade for observance of rules in English composition in all science classes. A high-school student may be able to complete aU his science courses creditably without any historical background, without reading any science articles in foreign languages, and even without making use of clear, correct and forceful English. These are most desirable, but are not absolutely prerequisites for science study. He can avoid use of mathematics throughout nearly all of his general science and biological science courses. But if he is to master physics and chemistry, he must make liberal use of mathematics. He does not need to know any advanced mathematics, he does not need a lot of mathematical processes poorly learned, but he must have a few particular operations well learned. There need be no quarrel here between teachers of science and mathematics. But neither must there be complacent disregard of the existing situation. Although the mathematics teacher need teach no physics or chemistry, as such, the physical science teachers *must, unavoidably, teach mathematics. The time used for the latter purpose can be minimized if the situation is scientifically handled, through sympathetic cooperation hetween departments. By giving tests in beginning physics classes, similar to the one published by Lohr (6) and tests of a somewhat different nature in beginning chemistry classes, the writer was able to locate very definitely where weaknesses in mathematics existed. Results obtained in the tests were similar to Lohr's. The interrelations between science and the vocational subjects must be worked out to suit the needs of separate schools. In a high school in which there is a course in agriculture, for instance, as well as all of the usual sciences courses, the latter should be adjusted to meet the needs of the former. Even in the event, as is usually the case, that there are not enough students of agriculture to constitute separate science groups, modification should be made in the existing courses. Extensive introduction of the teaching of agriculture, under provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, means in a sense an expansion in the field of science teaching. A new science subject is coming permanently into the curriculum.
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JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
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JUNE,1932
What is true of agriculture is likewise true of household arts and artisan trades, which have been encouraged by the Smith-Hughes Act. These are closely connected in their content with some of the subject matter of the usual science courses. Health education, likewise, where it has appeared as a separate course under one title or another, stresses many applications of principles in science. These are not conflicts of interests. Unifications are easy to bring about. Even though the training of the science teacher may be different from that of the teachers of'applied science subjects, all have many interests in common. Teachers of applied science snbjects are invited, on occasion, to meet with the chemistry department, in a modem school, and outline the work they are doing. They are asked to recommend ways in which the chemistry teachers can help most in driving home essential principles. Such conferences ordinarily result in all, or some, of the follow in^ modifications: (1) More stress is placed on chemistry principles upon which applied science teachers build applications. (2) Less stress is placed upon practical applications in chemistry classes and needless duplication is thus avoided (as work on foods in health education classes). (3) The order of topics in chemistry classes is altered, so that certain fundamentals may be taught before the applications come up in other classes. (4) Where alterations in chemistry fourses are inadvisable, due to logical organization, the alterations are attempted in the other courses. Literature Cited (1)
(2) (3) (4)
(5) (6)
FRANK.GLENN,"The Revolt against Education" (Address at H-ard, Mar. 20, 1926). Sch. &SOL,23, 729-41 (1926). WILLIAMS, "Histo~yof Science,'' 10 vnls. EDITORIAL, J. CHEM.EDUC.,3, 971 (Sept., 1936). SABATIER, "La Chimie Moderne et Marcelin Berthdot," ibid., 3, 1099-102 (Oct , 1926). CUNNINGHAM, Editor, "Adventures in Science," Ginn 8- Co., Boston, 1926. Lorn,"A Study of Mathematical Abilities, Powers, and Skills as Shown by Certain Classes in Physical Science," Sch. Sci. Malh., 25, 83-44 (Nov., 1925).
