Science
Dissident Soviet scientists under attack 115,000 Jews have left U.S.S.R. since 1968; others, including many scientists, have been refused visas and subjected to harassment Richard J. Seltzer C&EN, Washington
"Several years ago, when programs of scientific exchange with the West began there was a very optimistic feeling among Soviet scientists. We thought we had an open window to the big world. We thought it would be very difficult to close this window. But the Soviet government closed it." These words come from Dr. Evgeny Levich, a 28-year-old theoretical physicist now at the Weizmann Institute in Israel. A year ago, he was allowed to emigrate from the U.S.S.R., three years and two months after applying. Left behind in Moscow—still seeking permission to leave—is his father, Dr. Veniamin G. Levich, an internationally noted electrochemist.
The younger Levich is currently on a five-week tour of U.S. college campuses to mobilize support for emigration of Soviet scientists, under sponsorship of the Committee of Concerned Scientists. Earlier this month, he also met in Washington, D.C., with Dr. Philip Handler, president of the National Academy of Sciences, and with several Senators and Congressmen. From comments by Evgeny Levich and other emigre scientists, from reports by recent U.S. visitors to the U.S.S.R., and from other sources, a picture emerges of dissident Soviet scientists as perhaps the stepchildren of detente. Detente raised in many minds—U.S. and Soviet—expectations of more liberalization and international contact for science in the U.S.S.R., giving birth to greater Soviet expressions of dissent and more requests to emigrate. However, detente has not prevented what many sources describe as a "crackdown" during the past year on dissident scientists and intellectuals. Indeed, in parallel with increased U.S. questioning of Soviet actions—which has led President Ford to rule "detente" out of the Administration's vocabulary— concern among U.S. scientists over treatment of Soviet scientists appears to be growing, after a period of relatively low
Soviets defend emigration policy How do the Soviets respond to criticisms of their emigration policies? Boris Shumilin, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, says that Soviet emigration rules "are in full accord with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights" adopted by the United Nations in 1966. The covenant permits restrictions on emigration that the Soviet government imposes for "protection of state security, public order, health or moral standards," he stresses. Contradicting charges of a huge backlog of 150,000 applications, Shumilin declares that as of Jan. 1, 1976, decision had been "postponed" on "only 1.6%" of all applications. In general, "those who wished to leave the country did so," with 122,000 emigrating to Israel over the past 30 years. One category "delayed," he says, is "persons [who] possess information that constitutes state secrets" or who have recently undergone military training. This is reinforced by a spokesman at the Soviet Embassy in Washington, D.C., who says that " a small number— 1.6% in all the years—was refused
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C&EN March 29, 1976
because of their access to sensitive materials of a military nature. That's the only reason." Also denying charges of harassment, Shumilin says that "the fact of applying for emigration does not, as a rule, affect the person's job or social status." Applicants who work "in defense enterprises and offices linked with state secrets" are an exception and are given jobs of lesser importance. Soviet authorities attribute the emigration decline since 1974 to a falloff in interest among Soviet Jews, rather than to government pressure or limitations. Soviet officials claim that many emigres now wish to return. For instance, at a government-sponsored press conference last month in Moscow, several Soviet emigres who had returned from Israel and the U.S. appeared. One returnee denounced the high cost of living, high taxes, unemployment, "atmosphere of fear, uncertainty about one's future," and discrimination his family experienced abroad, and expressed pleasure at being able "to return to my homeland."
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prominence for the issue. Perhaps the greatest impetus was given by Soviet refusal last December to permit physicist Andrei Sakharov to travel to Oslo to receive the Nobel Peace Prize—a refusal accompanied by a barrage of attacks on him and the award by the Soviet press and fellow scientists. This refusal aroused protests from, among others, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the Federation of American Scientists (FAS), and a group of 33 Nobel Laureates (C&EN, Dec. 8,1975, page 20). Since then, FAS and other groups have protested mistreatment of additional Soviet scientists (C&EN, March 8, page 16). And calls now are coming from some quarters, including FAS, for selective sanctions and boycotts by individual scientists in scientific contacts with the U.S.S.R., in order to win improved Soviet behavior. Evgeny Levich points out that scientists occupy a very high position in Soviet society. Critically important to the country's economic and military goals, they have received relatively high wages, preferential housing, and other special privileges. However, "they have no freedom or political rights," he stresses. Probably many Soviet intellectuals believe that "it's really time for char ges in the Soviet Union—to make it a more open, civilized, more humanitarian society," he says. However, "most keep silent and don't say it—it's dangerous." If they instead behave obediently, "they can make a career and have a good life." There are two groups of dissident Soviet scientists now in "great difficulty and danger," note Levich and Dr. Jeremy J. Stone, director of FAS, who recently met with dissidents and officials in the U.S.S.R. The first group is those few in the human rights movement who have not yet been exiled, imprisoned, or otherwise silenced. Scientists have headed this movement from the beginning. The second and larger group is those who have applied to emigrate to Israel and have been refused exit visas—dubbed "refuseniks." Evgeny Levich explains that their desire to emigrate stems in particular from strong national or religious identification after the Six Day War, yearning for more freedom, and discrimination against Jews. For example, say engineer Viktor Polsky and physicist Alexander Voronel, formerly leaders of the refuseniks and now both in Israel, "Soviet Jews have no future in the Soviet Union." Polsky, Voronel, Evgeny Levich, and others all cite restrictions on career advancement—in
particular a "quota system" that makes it difficult for Jewish students to enter universities, especially in scientific fields. This contention is supported by official Soviet figures, according to Isabel Cymerman, research director of the National Conference on Soviet Jewry, and Dr. William Korey, director of the United Nations office of B'nai B'rith. For instance, Korey notes, not only has the percentage of Jewish students been declining drastically, but the absolute numbers are dropping—from 111,900 in 1968-69 to 88,500 in 1972-73 (while general student enrollments increased). The number of Jewish research students dropped 30% between 1970 and 1973, from 4945 to 3456. And Jews constitute a declining percentage of scientific workers—15% in 1950, 7% in 1971. Some 115,000 Jews left the U.S.S.R. between 1968 and 1975. Of the 100,000 who settled in Israel in 1968-74, no less than 12,770 had university degrees. Among them were some 2000 physicians, 100 graduates in life sciences, and 5710 engineers and architects (many of these
No exact figures are available, but scien2 m z tists are thought to number perhaps several hundred or more of the estimated o 3T 2500 current refuseniks—some repeatedly O o rebuffed and waiting for as long as eight years. Moreover, Cymerman notes, her organization believes that there is a backlog of some 150,000 applications by Soviet Jews for exit visas which have not been acted upon. And she suggests that many more scientists might apply if they did not fear reprisals. Indeed, note Evgeny Levich and others, when a scientist applies for a visa, dismissal from his job is "almost automatic, ,, with some exceptions. Such a scientist no longer can publish in Soviet or foreign Evgeny Levich: no open window journals, or communicate with fellow ''engineers" lack college degrees). The scientists except for other refuseniks. If he emigres now are estimated to constitute cannot find another job in the state-run economy, he becomes liable to trial and 15% of Israel's scientific community. imprisonment as a "parasite." Despite these figures, it is much harder Soviet officials have been especially by all accounts for scientists than others to get Soviet exit visas. Evgeny Levich cracking down on dissenters since early believes that two thirds of the scientists 1975, notes Cymerman. Issuance of exit are refused permission, at least initially. visas has been cut back strongly in the
Veniamin Levich: chemist in iimbo The highest ranking Jewish scientist to seek an emigration visa is Dr. Veniamin G. Levich. In 1972, Levich "had it made" as a Soviet scientist. Corresponding member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, holder of an international reputation in electrochemistry and theoretical physical chemistry, vice president of the International Electrochemical Society, chairman of units at both Moscow University and the Soviet Academy's Institute of Electrochemistry, author of widely admired textbooks, he was enjoying the relatively comfortable life style and secure future awarded those near the top of the Soviet pyramid. Then, in February 1972, he applied for permission to emigrate to Israel—and the roof fell in. He was dismissed from his teaching and research positions, snubbed by colleagues and students, had his phone disconnected, and his apartment bugged and put under surveillance, according to his son, Evgeny, and other sources. He and his family were repeatedly harassed and threatened. And Evgeny was arrested and sent for a year to a hard labor camp for criminals north of the Arctic Circle. The elder Levich became a "nonperson," with his name eliminated from Soviet and reprinted foreign journals and books. And an unsuccessful attempt was made to revoke his membership in the Academy of Sciences. Now, more than four years later and approaching his 59th birthday this week, Veniamin Levich is a man in limbo, suspended between the ruins of his scientific career and status in the Soviet Union and his unshakable hopes of beginning a new life abroad. He has been denied an exit visa on grounds of his
"secrecy clearance," although he says he ended defense-related work in 1948. Several times he was promised that his "secrecy clearance" would be lifted by the end of 1975, permitting him to emigrate. However, last October he was told by the KGB that he would not be allowed to leave (C&EN, Nov. 3, 1975, page 22). He furthermore was cautioned that continued protest activities might land him in prison. (He has ignored these warnings.) Last year, before communication became too difficult, C&EN interviewed Veniamin Levich by telephone. His home phone was disconnected and he had to go at midnight to the Moscow Central Telegraph Agency to receive the call. The conversation was necessarily restrained by the assumption that it was being monitored, but the electrochemist spoke surprisingly clearly. His son Evgeny has confirmed and expanded on his remarks. As a theoretician, Levich has been more capable of continuing his scientific work than have many other refusenik scientists. He is working on a revised edition of his text on physico-chemical hydrodynamics, a book which has had major impact. He has finished the first volume, and is working on a second. However, he says, "It is not easy. I work absolutely alone, because I have no collaborators." Veniamin Levich considers the most important problem to be lack of scientific contact with colleagues in the U.S.S.R. and abroad, and stresses the importance of the refusenik seminars. "We try to help each other, because it is very difficult to live without outside scientific contacts. So this is the only
kind of scientific communication I have." The electrochemist already holds faculty positions at Israel's Tel Aviv University and Technion. He also has received invitations to lecture and do research at a number of U.S. and U.K. universities. "But of course it is so far impossible to realize them." His morale is high, by all accounts. When asked if he has recreational possibilities, he replies suggestively, "I have no moral recreation. You understand what I mean? It is a very queer sort of life, very strange, and very peculiar—and all the time nervous stress, to be frank." He considers his fate to be "absolutely unpredictable." But he is still optimistic. "I'm a Jew, you see, and Jews are always, optimistic. For 2000 years they are optimistic." The Soviet chemist concluded the call by thanking his colleagues abroad for their support for him and his fellow refuseniks. "Your attention and your concern is very, very—most—important for me. And please tell this to all my American colleagues. I am very appreciative to all of them. Very indebted to all of them."
March 29, 1976 C&EN 19
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past two years—14,000 in 1975 and 21,000 in 1974 versus 35,000 in 1973. There have been six major trials of would-be emigrants on "pretexts of violating some law," Cymerman says, with sentences of as much as three to six years. Some applicants have been called up for military service, despite medical or student exemptions or being over-age. Furthermore, Cymerman says, interference with phone calls and mail has worsened. Until last year, sympathizers abroad could phone refuseniks regularly, but this is no longer possible. Perhaps the most "frightening" thing, note Stone and Polsky, is that the refuseniks are "all quietly dying as scientists." Without access to labs, instruments, or literature, and ostracized by their Soviet colleagues, "in a few years, they won't be able to do scientific work," says Stone. To maintain some kind of scientific viability, the refuseniks have therefore organized regular seminars. In Moscow, there is a central interdisciplinary seminar every Sunday and three subgroups during the week. One subgroup—at Veniamin Levich's home—covers physical chemistry, molecular biology, hydrodynamics, physics, and mathematics. Some 50 to 60 scientists participate in the seminars. There also are regular seminars in Kiev, Kishinev, and Vilnius. These seminars have been harassed and threatened, note Polsky, Voronel, and Evgeny Levich, but are "very important" for both science and morale. And Evgeny Levich urges U.S. scientists who visit Moscow, "please go to the seminar. It really helps." The major justification for denying exit visas to scientists is their holding "state secrets." "Secrets" is an extremely broad category in the U.S.S.R., notes Evgeny Levich, embracing many things which western scientists would consider normal scientific, proprietary, or trade information. In most cases, it appears that refusenik scientists did not have access to true security information. In any event, says Polsky, a three-year waiting period before emigration for such cases, as proposed in the Jackson amendment, or even five years would be acceptable. "At least you'd know when you apply that you will be free in five years. Now I don't know if it will be five or 10 or 20. Some of my friends have been waiting seven or eight years." Refusenik scientists who are not allowed to work are of no value to the U.S.S.R., so why aren't they permitted to leave, also ending the unfavorable publicity and protests? The uncertainty and harassment of refuseniks deliberately aim to deter other scientists from applying to emigrate, many sources agree. Soviet officials appear to fear a "brain drain" of highly qualified Jewish scientists and intellectuals. (For example, there were 25,000 Jewish scientific workers in Moscow alone in 1971, and 66,800 in all the U.S.S.R.) They also may fear a "domino effect" by such emigration on other scientists, one source suggests. Π
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