In the Classroom
A Course in Early Chemistry for Undergraduates A Speculative Experiment in Historical Modeling at the Donetsk State University Mikhail Yu. Rodygin* The Institute of Physical Organic and Coal Chemistry, Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences, Donetsk, Ukraine Irene V. Rodygina Licee #55, Gorlovka, Ukraine
Although the science of chemistry has branched off from the liberal arts, it has continued to maintain an unalterable and indissoluble link with the arts. This connection offers an opportunity to apply the humanistic criteria of perfection, beauty, and morality to the science, and, in turn, to use the methods intrinsic to the humanities in chemistry. Widespread application of a humanistic methodological approach to chemistry could help raise the cultural level of the average student of chemical colleges. History, including the history of science, is an integral part of human culture. The history of science is not just a chronologically organized set of facts, but a coherent picture of the origins of ideas, their development, and their influence on and consequences for human civilization. Thus, it would be useful to trace the genesis of ideas, because, whenever possible, concepts should be evaluated within the context from which they first arose. This article describes a course in the history of early chemistry given to undergraduates at the Donetsk State University, Ukraine. This college course stresses general cultural values and pursues cognitive as well as research goals. In our *Corresponding author. P. O. Box # 67, Gorlovka, 338026, Ukraine.
opinion, teaching the history of chemistry should focus on creating in the student’s mind an integrated view of the subject, and relate chemical science to general humanistic principles. The declared goals can only be achieved if the history of chemistry is considered from a researcher’s standpoint. It is necessary to understand the ways in which knowledge of the history of chemistry is obtained, and further necessary to evaluate the extent to which the knowledge obtained is reliable. We offer to our students the following classification of approaches used in studying the history of chemistry: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
historical historiographical culturological psychological archaeological chemical
The entire course was based on these six approaches. Students were asked to study in a variety of ways, as discussed below. Study alchemical treatises. The especially illuminating examples of the Libellus de Alchimia by Albertus Magnus (1), as well as The Book of the Secret of Secrets by Al-Razi (Rases) Continued on page 1321
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In the Classroom
(2) should be mentioned. These manuscripts are useful not only to become familiar with and to consider the development of chemical knowledge during certain historical periods, but they also allow us to trace the genesis of alchemical ideas and the adoption and adaptation of alchemical ideas during their transfer from the Arabs to the Latin West. Read research papers on the history of chemistry. Students are encouraged to read a wide variety of publications related to the subject. Broadening their horizons by reading, students acquire knowledge and form their own opinions on the subject, both of which are essential for participation in discussions. Study the works of literature and painting by authors and artists who lived during the alchemical period of chemistry (3). We consider reading, including reading of fiction, to be an important part of education, as it helps to develop imagination and creativity. We recommend The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale by G. Chaucer and Roman de la Rose by Jean de Meung, both of which are essential to understand the character and spiritual atmosphere of the epoch (4), and the novel Le Notre Dame de Paris by Victor Hugo (5). We also recommend the study of alchemical symbolism in Flemish artwork (6 ). Reconsider some historical facts in light of Jung’s psychological symbolism (7 ). According to Jung, alchemical development took place at the border of mental and physical spheres. From this perspective, the analysis of dreams and the unveiling of the alchemical archetypes underlying them could help to span the bridge between the mind of a modern chemist and that of an alchemist of the past. Thus, direct and spontaneous revelation of the alchemist’s motivations becomes possible. Observe some material samples of the ancient culture, for example, in a museum. Such a substantial, materialistic practice allows students to develop practical mentality, thus bridging speculative mind constructions with everyday life requirements. Unfortunately, few natural science museum exhibits represent items directly related to the history of chemistry. In this case, students may be assigned to create their own imaginative, or even real, exhibits such as The Subjects of Civilization and The Materials of Civilization. Avoiding formalistic generalizations, this approach allows students to boost their creativity and to articulate their opinions on the progress in use and development of materials in human culture. Study some issues related to chemical modeling of alchemical processes. To become acquainted with the general principles used in this approach, we recommend the works of L. Principle (8) and V. Karpenko (9). During our seminars, results were obtained which model the processes described in Liber Duodecium Portarum by G. Ripley. The above references, only a fraction of the works we have used, are given simply to illustrate the methodology associated with each approach. Students were also required to prepare individual projects that could not be successfully accomplished without mastering all six approaches listed above. However, the most practical application of the students’ knowledge occurs in discussions. Their topics and all the subjects to be discussed are submitted to the students beforehand, giving students an opportunity to get prepared. Generally, two or more opposing discussion groups participate in these discussions, the results of which allow us to determine
an individual student’s rating. The rating was calculated as the total score obtained for mastering the six subject areas, the originality of ideas, logical structure and completeness, and the form of presentation. Whenever possible, different issues in the history of early chemistry are considered from the points of view of the Bible and Aristotle, these two indispensable, indisputable, and, in fact, absolute authorities in natural science that reigned during the Middle Ages. The structure and form of this course are similar to those used in medieval European universities and allow an important educational experiment in speculative modeling. Course evaluations submitted by participating students have been favorable. The content and logical structure of the course have received positive comments from students and from our teaching colleagues. Three-fourths of the students demonstrated nonstandard approaches, generating novel vision and opinions on the subject. Most of the students especially enjoyed playing roles to model a learning process resembling that used in medieval universities. Reconstructing a medieval scholar’s mental framework prompts novel approaches and often sheds light on many “dark spots” in the history of natural science. Finally, the course is especially attractive because intellectual reconstruction of past reality is the ultimate goal of any historical study. Sample Syllabus I. Importance of the History of Science. Approaches applied to the study of the history of chemistry and alchemy. Discussion of the topic “Does a Chemist Need Historical Knowledge?” 1. Historical progress in interactions and interconnections between fields of natural science. 2. Historical approach: Method to boost humanistic values in natural science. 3. The most rapid and reliable method of mastering any science is to follow it through its entire development. II. The Origins of Chemical Knowledge. Chemical Knowledge, the Bible, and Beyond. Discussion of the topic “Does a Chemist Need the Bible?” 1. General cultural context of the Scripture. 2. Historical aspects of the Bible. 3. Chemical knowledge in the Bible. III. Theoretical Speculations of the Ancients on the Structure and Origin of the Universe. Discussion of the topic “Does a Chemist Need Philosophy?” 1. Aristotelian logic as a foundation for computational science and natural science. 2. Identity of natural philosophy and natural science. 3. Genesis of, and interconnections between, the philosophical and natural science ideas. IV. Hellenistic Alchemy. The Idea of Transmutation. The Berthelot– Hopkins Conception. Discussion of the topic “Ancient Alchemy: Philosophy or Natural Science?” 1. Alchemy’s chief values. 2. Alchemical transmutation. 3. The Philosopher’s Stone concept. V. Arabian Alchemy. M. Eliade’s Theory. The Mercury–Sulfur Doctrine. Discussion of the topic “Did Arabian Alchemists Create New Knowledge or Did They Only Preserve the Old One?” 1. Transfer of alchemical knowledge to the Arabs. 2. Importance of the Arabian contribution to science. 3. Arabian influence on science in the Latin world. VI. West-European Alchemy. Discussion of the topic “Is Alchemy the Past or the Future of Chemistry?” 1. Alchemy is nothing.
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In the Classroom 2. Alchemy is imperfect chemistry. 3. Alchemy is the same as chemistry. 4. Alchemy is superior chemistry. VII. Non-Chemical Aspects of Alchemy. Discussion of the topic “Alchemy as an Illuminating Phenomenon of Medieval Culture”. 1. Alchemy and astrology. 2. Alchemy and magic. 3. The place of alchemy in human culture. 4. Alchemy as a mystic way of self-perfection. Literature for Students 1. The Holy Bible. 2. Roberts, G. The Mirror of Alchemy: Alchemical Ideas and Images in Manuscripts and Books from Antiquity to the 17th Century; University of Toronto Press: Toronto, 1995. 3. Lemann, A. Illiustrirovannaja Istorija Sueverij i Volshebstva ot Drevnosti do Nashih Dnej [An Illustrated History of Superstitions and Magic from Antiquity to the Present Day]; Ukraina: Kiev, 1991. 4. Rabinovich, V. L. Alkhimia kak Fenomen Srednevekovoj Kul’tury [Alchemy as a Phenomenon of Medieval Culture]; Nauka: Moscow, 1979. 5. Rabinovich, V. L. Ispoved’ Knigocheja, Kotory Uchil Bukve, a Ukreplial Dukh [Confession of a Bibliophile Who Strengthened the Spirit by Teaching the Letter]; Kniga: Moscow, 1991. 6. Vozniknovenie i Razvitie Khimii s Drevnih Vremen do XVII Veka. Vseobshchaja Istorija Khimii [The Origin and Development of Chemistry from Antiquity to the 17th Century. A General History of Chemistry]; Solov’ev, Yu. I., Ed.; Nauka: Moscow, 1983. 7. Linden, S. J. Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English Literature from Chaucer to the Restoration (Studies in the English Renaissance); University Press of Kentucky: Lexington, 1996. 8. Read, J. From Alchemy to Chemistry; Dover: Mineola, NY, 1995. 9. Partington, J. R. A Short History of Chemistry, 3rd rev. ed.; Dover: Mineola, NY, 1989. 10. Stillman, J. M. The Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry; Dover: New York, 1960. 11. Lindberg, D. C. The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1993.
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12. Brock, W. H. The Norton History of Chemistry, reprint ed.; Norton History of Science Series; W. W. Norton: New York, 1993. 13. Ripley, G. Compound of Alchemy; Kessinger: Boise, ID, 1997. 14. Ripley, G. The Marrow of Alchemy, reprint ed.; Holmes, J. D., Ed; Alchemical Press: Edmonds, WA, 1994. 15. Singer, C. A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century; Dover: Mineola, NY, 1997.
Acknowledgments We thank R. F. Trimble (Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, IL), S. V. Yarovoi (Worcester Foundation for Biomedical Research, Shrewsbury, MA), and M. N. Zayats (Donetsk State University, Donetsk, Ukraine) for fruitful discussions and for their invaluable contributions to the manuscript. Literature Cited 1. Vozniknovenie i Razvitie Khimii s Drevnih Vremen do XVII Veka. Vseobshchaja Istorija Khimii [The Origin and Development of Chemistry from Antiquity to the 17th Century. A General History of Chemistry]; Solov’ev, Yu. I., Ed.; Nauka: Moscow, 1983. 2. Karimov, U. I. Neizvestnoe Sochinenie Ar-Razi “Kniga Tajny Tajn” [Al-Razi’s Unknown Work “The Book of the Secret of Secrets”]; Izd. AN Uzb.SSR: Tashkent, 1957. 3. Rabinovich, V. L. Alkhimia kak Fenomen Srednevekovoj Kul’tury [Alchemy as a Phenomenon of Medieval Culture]; Nauka: Moscow, 1979. 4. Walker, F. J. Chem. Educ. 1930, 7, 2863–2874; 1932, 9, 1378–1385. 5. Rabinovich, V. L. In Zabluzhdajushchijsia Razum? Mnogoobrazie Vnenauchnogo Znanija [The Mind Going Nowhere? The Multiplicity of Non-Scientific Knowledge]; Kasavin, I. T., Ed.; Politizdat: Moscow, 1990; pp 97–116. 6. Brinkman, A. A. A. M. Chem. Techniek 1971, 26, 489–490; 1972, 27, 21–22. 7. Jung, C. G. Psychology and Alchemy (Collected Works of Carl G. Jung, Vol. 12), 2nd ed.; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, 1980. 8. Principle, L. Ambix 1987, 34, 21–30. 9. Karpenko, V. Ambix 1992, 39, 47–62. 10. Rodygin, M. Yu.; Rodygina, I. V. J. Chem. Educ. 1997, 74, 949–950.
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