feature
Irving D. Canton, Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, III.
Africa's By the end of 1960, considerably more than half the population of Africa south of the Sahara will have achieved political self-determination. With the exception of those in a few isolated countries, the remaining peoples of this area are likely to become independent within a decade. These new nations will be doing everything possible to broaden the bases of their limited "one-crop" economies. Their objective: to minimize their vulnerability to changes in international markets and to provide the funds for the enormous social, educational, and technical gains which lie ahead. They can only achieve this by rationally exploiting their natural resources and by setting u p viable industries. In this effort, applied research will have to play a growing role.
Marked Distinctions Africa below the Sahara cannot be thought of as a unit. Countries differ PHYSICS STUDENTS. Juniors (firstyear students) work in the physics lab of the University College of Ghana. Ghana supports no significant applied research now, but a National Research Council has been set up tooriginate, coordinate, and finance research activities
CHEMICAL RESEARCH. CSIR's new National Chemical Research Laboratory is located in Scientia, the Council's new park-like headquarters near Pretoria. CSIR has a staff of 1800, operated on a $7 million budget in 1959
Industrial Research greatly in political structures and in ways they have developed. Ethiopia and Liberia are in many ways the least developed of the group; they are independent nations of long standing which have never suffered from imperialism (with the exception of Mussolini's short-lived adventure in Ethiopia in the 1930's). Ghana, Sudan, and Nigeria, the most politically and economically advanced of the newly independent or soon-to-be-independent nations, represent countries with great promise. The colonies in the east-central and southern portions of Africa are mostly malaria-free highlands with healthful climates; they have attracted large numbers of European (Africa terminology for members of the white race) settlers who are reluctant to turn over their destinies to native rule. Thus, racial policies in these areas are in sharp contrast to those in the nations which recently gained independencecountries where less desirable climates deterred foreign settlement. However, the presence of white settlers in eastcentral and south Africa has been a definite factor in their relatively advanced economies. Nyasaland in the Central Africa Federation and the countries of east
Author visits up-and-coming countries south of the Sahara, assesses their efforts to expand industry by research
The real limitation on African research isn't money, but lack of Africa (Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika) seem probable candidates for achieving independence from Great Britain in the next 10 years. On the other hand, the white population firmly controls rapidly developing Northern and Southern Rhodesia. Rich, diversified natural resources and a large inflow of British capital have given the Rhodesias the most advanced economies in Africa, except for the Union of South Africa. The Union of South Africa is a special case in itself. It is an independent nation in the British Commonwealth with a politically dominant and economically active white population (3 million in a total of 15 million). Its industrial economy might better be compared with the economies of some European countries, rather than with those of other African countries. The economies of all these African nations are based mainly on agriculture and mining. As such, they produce substantially the same commodities as the developing nations of Latin America and Asia. Thus to develop them will require particularly careful study and planning to avoid destroying delicately balanced world markets and avoid wasting scarce capital on uneconomic ventures.
ing, manufacturing, and extractive industries. In view of the great resource and market potential, American industry would do well to consider gaining an early foothold in this growing area. Because of the rapidly changing political picture in some countries and the relative dearth of statistics, cautious, study should, of course, precede any venture.
Varied Programs Africa is by no means barren of research activity. At the last accounting by the Commission for Technical Cooperation in Africa South of the Sahara (an independent agency jointly supported by the colonial powers and several of the independent nations in the area) in December 1954, this area had 416 research organizations. However, almost all of these were primarily engaged in basic research in such fields as agriculture, biology, tropical medicine, entomology, and sociology. Most of these organizations were small, very often with a scientific staff of less than five persons. I shall discuss, however, only those organizations conducting industrial research. By such research I mean scientific and economic studies on local natural resources aimed at
establishing or expanding local industry and national income. The purpose: to establish or expand local industry and so to improve national income.
Company Research Africa has some sizable companyowned research laboratories. Most of these are attached to relatively large industrial or mining enterprises in the Union of South Africa and the Rhodesias. Some small companies have also established laboratories. However, these principally do control work rather than research. In the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland well developed applied research programs are being carried out by the mineral beneficiation and metallurgical laboratories operated by. private mining companies in the copper belt of Northern Rhodesia. Anglo-American Corp/s research and development division operates a laboratory and pilot plant at Kitwe, where a professional staff of 25 is working on problems of extracting and refining copper, cobalt, lead, arid zinc. The Rhodesian Selection Trust has a small metallurgical laboratory at Kalalushi, staffed with five chemists and
Search for Outside Capital Each country is intensely interested in acquiring new industries and is actively pursuing foreign investors. Each has established an Industrial Development Corp. or some equivalent agency to help attract foreign capital and know-how and, if necessary, to assist in financing the enterprise. For the foreseeable future, capital investment will be sought mainly from abroad rather than from government funds that are more urgently needed for public works, health, education, and other essential social programs. Most countries have already established the usual complement of the more obvious secondary industries (food processing, brick, soap, textiles, cigarettes, tire recapping, beer, soft drinks). Some also have sugar and cement mills in addition to plants for making glass and industrial gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen. However, many opportunities still exist in these fields, as well as in the process106
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LAB IN KENYA. EAIRO does agricultural research in labs such as this, its worK is supported by East African governments and by British Colonial Development funds
technically trained Africans . . .
BUILT IN AFRICA. CSIR uses this electro-magnetic isotope separator with the 45-inch cyclotron in its National Physical Research Laboratory. Both items were designed and built in Pretoria, Union of South Africa
STUDENTS IN AFRICA. Students like these at Makerere College at Kampala, Uganda, will become the technically trained men who will provide the real boost to African research. Such trained men are now just beginningto become available
metallurgists. In addition RST has a large laboratory in its geological services department which reportedly is doing advanced research on geochemical and geophysical prospecting. The Union of South Africa has a large private industrial research effort. The Diamond Research Laboratoiy, near Johannesburg, has a well equipped laboratory with a staff of 40 (of which 16 are scientists) jointly supported by the country's diamond producers. They are determining the basic properties of diamonds, expanding the industrial use of diamonds, and improving methods for extracting diamonds from ores. One study is on diamonds as semiconductors for high-
temperature thermistors. A recently acquired 1.4 m.e.v. Crocker Walcroft cascade generator will be used to explore the basic structure of the diamond crystal. In the mining industry, the Union's most important private research eflFort is conducted by the Central Metallurgical Laboratory of Anglo-American Corp. in Johannesburg. With 25 professionals in a total group of 53 it is conducting laboratory and pilot plant programs in mineral dressing, extractive metallurgy, and mineralogy for the large number of companies in the Anglo-American complex. The laboratory is currently working on beneficiation of a titaniferous magnetite
containing chrome and vanadium, a solvent extraction process for extracting thorium from monazite sands, and a pressure leaching process for extracting uranium from gold mine tailings. The largest company in the Union's chemical industry is African Explosives and Chemical Industries, Ltd., jointly owned by DeBeers and Imperial Chemical Industries. It produces a variety of explosives, heavy chemicals, fertilizers, plastics, solvents, paints, and plastics-coated cloth. One indication of its size: It operates the largest commercial explosives plant in the world and the largest fertilizer factoiy in the southern hemisphere. Its research department, at Modderfontein near Johannesburg, has a total staff of about 280, including about 80 at the professional level. Formerly the department depended heavily on ICI in England for research. However, since 1952 the staff has been built up to a point where it is virtually self-sufficient in its research and development effort. As would be expected, most of the research is aimed at improving existing products, processes, and analytical methods. The staff is also developing new products, principally organic chemicals, insecticides, and herbicides. Various companies in the Union making steel, hydrocarbons from coal, and other products have also set up laboratories. These, however, are primarily for control work and for solving processing problems. In Liberia, Firestone maintains a research department at its huge rubber plantation at Harbel. This lab is divided into botanical and chemical departments. The chemical department has a scientific staff of four, aided by about 45 Liberian assistants. It is doing fundamental research on the chemical and physical properties of natural rubber and the composition of the nonrubbers in latex. It is also studying the viscosity and color of latex. Although this laboratory operates independently, it cooperates with the home laboratory in Akron where most of the research is on synthetic rubber. This laboratory has also done development work on palm oil soap and building materials. Firestone makes these for its own large labor force and for sale to the limited local market.
Government Research In young countries, in the absence of JUNE
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Africa is recognizing that research is essential to exploiting resources rationally and building new, growing industries... private institutions, government-subsidized institutes usually support applied research. Among nine countries below the Sahara, four applied research institutions of this type already exist. All are in British or former British colonies. The most important of these is the Union of South Arica's Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, which recently moved into new and expanded quarters on the outskirts of Pretoria, the capital of the Union. It is staffed almost entirely by scientists of European descent whose training and work compare favorably with those in the more advanced countries. Established in 1945, CSIR has a staff of 1800 which operated last year on a budget of $7 million. About 30% of this money comes from fellowships and applied research programs sponsored
by local industry. The remaining funds are appropriated annually by the local parliament. CSIR's policy is to urge and assist its industrial sponsors to establish their own laboratories as soon as possible. CSIR encompasses the National Research Laboratories in chemistry, physics, building, telecommunications, personnel, mechanical engineering, roads, water, and nutrition. By contributing technical advice and 50% of the financial support CSIR has helped industrial associations set up laboratories for research in leather, fishing, sugar, paint, and wool. It also is responsible for the country's Bureau of Standards, development of medical research, and a postgraduate fellowship research program. CSIR's National Chemical Research Laboratory has a staff of 130, about 60 of them at the scientist or engineer
STUDYING CASSAVA. Cassava root extracts are distilled and cyanogens identified at Nigeria's Federal Institute of Industrial Research. FUR is studying the industrial uses for cassava (the native food staple), proteins from grasses, solar heating, and fibers for sacking. The work is sponsored by the government
level. Its laboratories and pilot plant are working on industrial fermentation processes, desalting brackish water, and a variety of native raw materials. The Union of South Africa recently established an Atomic Energy Board in Pretoria, supported by the mining industry ( 5 0 % ) , government ( 4 0 % ) , and heavy industry ( 1 0 % ) . Plans call for purchasing an atomic reactor and undertaking research programs on reactor technology, uranium from gold mine tailings, and related problems. No laboratory facilities, however, have been established yet. The East African High Commission Territories of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika (population 20 million) can boast of the next most highly developed applied research activities in the area. The East African Industrial Research Organization at Nairobi in Kenya grew from a nucleus formed during World War II to develop local products to replace those cut off by the war. EAIRO moved into its well designed new quarters two years ago. It is entirely supported by the East African territorial government and by British Colonial Development funds. The scientific staff of 10 Britons is aided by about 25 local technicians and helpers. The organization aids private industry without charge. EAIRO laboratories and pilot plant are mainly oriented toward agricultural processing research. Recent investigations: drying coffee mechanically; extracting jasmine, tannin, and pyrethrum; and fuel for the railroads. A ceramics laboratory is working on vitreous bowls, drain pipes, and brick and tile. A metallurgical laboratory has studied ways to remove arsenic from copper ores, improve copper flotation yields, and recover bismuth. Unfortunately, the political forces driving each of the sponsoring territories toward separate independence has kept EAIRO from becoming as effective as it might. For instance, when the metallurgical laboratory was added in 1958, it was located in Entebbe, Uganda, almost 400 miles away. The reason: primarily politics. Because the general research facilities of the main laboratories are unavailable, the two metallurgists staffing this lab-
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Research-Staff A d m . Ass't. Chemistry, Physics or General Engineering graduate to assist Vice-President, R&D, manage engineering activities services supporting experimental work. Work with Patent Applications correspondence with foreign licenses. Exp. desired. Knowledge of German helpful.
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oratory probably cannot do their best work even though they are somewhat closer to the mining areas. Uganda also has a small but active applied research laboratory, which is set up as a Technical Department of the government's Uganda Development Corp. One of its functions is to lead potential investors to establish new enterprises in the country. The laboratory, located in Tororo, has a European scientific staff of four, supported by 37 African assistants. Their most important recent effort has been to operate a pilot plant for treating an apatite ore to recover phosphate and pyrochlore (which contains niobium). Further work on this project is being studied by a potential foreign investor. Other laboratory projects involve fish meal, soil-cement brick, sodium hypochlorite, high phosphate limestone for cement, and soda ash and sodium sulfate from alkaline lakes. About 20% of the work is for private sponsors, who are charged on a cost recovery basis. Nigeria, the most populous country in Africa (35 million) started research activities under the British in 1952. This initial effort was reorganized into the Federal Institute of Industrial Research in 1956. FUR is near Lagos, the federal capital, and is supported by Nigeria's Federal Ministry of Commerce and Industries. The institute now has a staff of 60. The scientific staff consists of four Britons and three Nigerians. On a 7-acre site they are just beginning to occupy a set of new buildings, which includes a pilot plant bay reasonably well equipped to handle agricultural processing problems. The institute is investigating the use of coir (coconut husk fiber), industrial applications for cassava (the native food staple), proteins from grasses, solar heating, and fibers for sacking. All this work is under government sponsorship. Local industry provides no support except for a small amount of analytical work, for which they are charged minimal fees. Although a fine base has been laid, in view of the size of the country, the institute is hampered by its relatively small scientific staff. A professional staff of 15 is the goal, but budget restrictions and the lack of qualified Nigerians will make this goal hard to reach in the near future.
Plans for Research Several countries whose governments do not now sponsor research are planning to do so. Even though the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland has one of the most rapidly growing economies in the world, it has no broad-range applied research institutions. A recently passed bill, however, provides for setting up agricultural and industrial research programs. An Agricultural Research Council has been formed to sponsor and coordinate fundamental research in agriculture. Up to the present, no plans have been made to implement the industrial research aspects of the bill. However, the recent creation of an Industrial Promotion Corp. may serve to call attention to this need. The problem is not only to develop new enterprises but also to service the research needs of the already-extensive industrial community. Ghana is supporting no applied research effort of any importance now. However, a National Research Council, answering directly to the prime minister, was recently created to originate, coordinate, and finance research in medicine, agriculture, and industry. To date, small units have been set up for research in parasitology and timber growth. Although an applied research institute is being considered, no definite plans have yet been made.
Colonial Research Most colonial powers offer the services of research laboratories in the home countries. For instance, Britishlinked countries can refer research problems to the Tropical Products Institute in London. This institute has laboratories and a pilot plant and a professional staff of about 80; it operates within the framework of the government's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. In countries linked to France, this work is done in Paris by a group of government laboratories operated for the overseas territories under the Ministry of Aid and Technical Cooperation. For instance, vegetable oil problems are handled by the Institut de Recherches pour les Huiles et Oleagineaux, which has a professional staff of about 20. Similar institutes work on rice, fruit, and rubber.
No Research Of the remaining countries visited,
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Available for the first time, these low cost, Aloe, ultraviolet transmitting, round cuvettes offer distinct advantages to all educational, industrial and other research laboratories. Multiple problem of low cost, accurate U-V cuvettes now solved with these round, matched cuvettes. Proven in laboratory use over a year. No unusual etching noted when 4 normal acid or alkali concentrations were allowed to stand for as long as two hours. They compare most favorably in accuracy, to say nothing of cost, with conventional square "quartz" cuvettes in the 235-340 mu range where 95% of all U-V measurements are made. ( Not Recommended for use with Photomultiplier.) 74147A — Aloe U-V Cuvettes, round, set of 4, matched to tolerance of Y2% T $20.00 74147B — Aloe U-V Cuvettes, round, set of 12, matched to tolerance of 1 % T $24.00 Accessories:
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neither Sudan nor Ethiopia supports applied research of any significance. Each depends heavily on a single crop, Sudan on cotton and Ethiopia on coffee. This suggests a real need for research to develop and use their other resources. Education Sparse African scientific and technical education today is at a relatively low level. However, in most of the countries discussed, a university (and in some cases, a technical college) has recently been established or expanded. And within a few years, significant numbers of native students will be graduating. In all cases, the teaching staffs are almost wholly European. Each country has a program for training large numbers of students abroad. Despite this excellent start, European technologists will be required by Africa's expanding economies for many years to come. Chemistry is taught at each of the universities. However, with the exception of those in the Union of South Africa, most are just beginning to turn out their first graduating classes, averaging less than 10 chemistry majors a year. Currently, the Union of South Africa is the only country with facilities for teaching chemical engineering. Eight universities there graduate about 750 scientists and engineers a year, of which from 25 to 50 are chemical engineers or metallurgists. Elsewhere, the few students interested in this career generally have to travel abroad for training. As a result, there are few African chemical engineers. With minor exceptions, no applied research is being carried out today by the universities.
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Although applied research in Africa is in its infancy, a good beginning has been made in several countries. T h e best hope for the future is that many of the African and European civil . servants staffing the planning agencies in each country are well aware of the value of research. They recognize that research is essential to exploiting resources rationally and building new, growing industries. Unfortunately, in many quarters, the short-sighted belief is still held that young economies cannot afford the "luxury" of research. Experience in many developing countries has shown that the cost of operating a research institute can be
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Conductive Neoprene rollers eliminate static electricity • Jars stay centered on patented " n o - c r e e p " rolls • Adjustable roll spacing • Single or multitier units to roll 1 to 24 jars of i / 2 pint to 61/2 gallons.
60/50 8 32.33
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Hydrogenations—up to 5 0 0 0 psi
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Ion Exchange Cellulose
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SCINTILLATION PHOSPHORS Alphanaphthylphenyloxazole, ANPO: A Band-Shifter or Secondary Solute, for Liquid Counting—Fluorescence Max. 4050 A Diphenyloxazole, DPO: A Primary Solute, for Liquid Counting—Fluorescence Max. 3800 A. P O P O P : A Band Shifter or Secondary Solute, for Liquid Counting—Fluorescence Max. 4200 A p - T e r p h e n y l : Least Expensive P r i m a r y Solute, for Liquid and Plastic Counting—Fluorescence Max. 3160 A T e t r a p h e n y l b u t a d i e n e , T P B : For use with p-Terphenyl in Plastic Scintillators—Fluorescence Max. 4320 A Cadmium Propionate, anhydrous: A Highly Efficient Neutron Captor—Cadmium Content: 43.5% A v a i l a b l e from stock—write to Dept. " D " for free booklet on these products.
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paid for many times over by the money saved in avoiding unsound investments. And this does not even take into account the ability of research to create new wealth by using valuable, hitherto untapped resources. In the final analysis, however, the real limitation on African research is not money but technically trained Africans. Fortunately, trained men are now just beginning to become available, and the number will inevitably increase in future years. Countries where research has not yet been established must begin now to train students in the important disciplines. They must also begin to organize the nucleus of their future research activity around a temporary foreign staff. To this foreign staff will go the job of organizing and conducting research, at least initially. Of more lasting significance, it will have the task of training the nucleus of a future corps of Africans to use scientific methods in solving their countries' economic development problems.
IRVING D. CANTON is assistant director of international research at the Armour Research Foundation of Illinois Institute of Technology. He has participated in ARF's research laboratory organization programs for the governments of Mexico, Colombia, and Burma. Besides being responsible for setting up ARF's European Technical Operations Group program in The Hague, Mr. Canton was a member of a research study mission to Uruguay and team leader of a mission which studied the feasibility of developing Brazil's low-grade iron ore deposits. From 1940 to 1948, he held engineering positions with the U.S. Navy Department, Montrose Chemical Co., and Foster D. Snell, Inc. He worked in Latin America from 1948 to 1953 on the construction and startup of several chemical plants. During the last three months of 1959, Mr. Canton went to Africa under a research grant from ARF to study the status of African applied research. This article was adapted from his report on the study.
Founded 1950
JUNE
6,
1960
C&EN
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