Physical Resources for the Chemical Industry I n t h e East S o u t h Central States-Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, a n d Tennessee-there i s s u c h diversity of physicalresources t h a t each s t a t e is treated separately here. T h e location of coal, dolomite, a n d iron ore i n Alabama h a s given rise t o t h e iron a n d steel industry i n i t s largest industrial city, B i r m i n g h a m , a n d t h e use of coke t o s m e l t t h e iron ore h a s resulted i n a n extensive coking industry with chemical by-products. Agricult u r a l products such a s cotton a n d cottonseed, peanuts, a n d tung-producing trees serve as raw materials for t h e chemical industry. Coal is t h e most i m p o r t a n t mineral of Kentucky which is t h e t h i r d largest coal producing s t a t e i n t h e country. Other i m p o r t a n t resources a r e petroleum, n a t u r a l gas, limestone, fluorspar, a n d clay, a s well a s adeq u a t e supplies of water a n d electric power. I t s biggest agricultural product is tobacco. While Mississippi econo m y has been predominantly agricultural, i t h a s s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t s of petroleum, n a t u r a l gas, clay, a n d limestone, plus extensive railroads a n d highways, a n d deepwater a n d inland ports. I n 1936 Mississippians embarked o n a n aggressive development program t o
balance agriculture with industry (BAWI). Their physical resources have been exploited t h r o u g h research a n d development a n d commercial, industrial, agricultural, a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g enterprises have been established a s a m a t t e r of public convenience a n d necessity. T h e Mississippi River b o t h a s a source of process water a n d a s a channel of transportation is a n i m p o r t a n t i n d u c e m e n t for t h e chemical industry. Chemical m a n u f a c t u r i n g measured i n t e r m s of e m p l o y m e n t , payrolls, a n d value of o u t p u t is t h e largest i n d u s t r y i n Tennessee. Extensive federal hydroelectric projects o n t h e Tennessee a n d C u m b e r l a n d rivers, s u p p l e m e n t e d by new s t r e a m plants, a r e t h e source of economical electric power required for t h e operation of large electrochemical a n d electrometallurgical developments. Tennessee h a s 30 i m p o r t a n t minerals of which copper, zinc, a n d phosphate ores, coal, a n d limestone a r e principal raw materials for m a j o r chemical operations. Cotton, cottonseed, a n d soybeans a r e basic t o large chemical c o t t o n a n d oil refining establishments, a n d a s nearly half t h e area of t h e s t a t e is i n forests, i t is attractive for paper a n d pulp manufacture.
ALABAMA
T
STEWART I. LLOYD
GEORGE M. TOFFEL
ALABAMA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TUSCALOOSA, ALA.
SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA, UNIVERSITY, ALA.
HE subject, “physical resources,” eliminates the matter of personnel a t all levels, financial resources, the political atmosphere, educational facilities, transportation, and a few other factors which may influence the well-being of a chemical operation in the state. It does include the climate, the water supply, both surface and underground, electric power available, mineral raw materials of all kinds, salt, oil, natural gas, iron ore, coal, lignite, limestone, dolomite, clay, shale, and sand. Products of the soil such as peanuts, and especially the cellulose producers, cotton, pine, and hardwoods, fall within the limits. The line between chemistry on the one hand, and metallurgy and ceramics on the other cannot be sharply drawn, and will probably be overstepped now and then. In a private publication issued by Lloyd in 1934, entitled ‘‘A 2330
Chemical Survey of the Birmingham District,’, the raw materials useful for chemical industry were divided into natural and secondary substances; the latter included materials like slap, benzene, manufactured gas, various coal distillation products, lime, phosphoric acid, and ammonia. This list of secondary raw materials has increased somewhat since 1934, but is taken care of as far as possible, though emphasis is naturally placed on the actual primary unmanufactured substances. Chemical industry is chiefly concerned with the elaboration or working up of the crude raw materials supplied by nature into more complex and valuable products. The cost of assembling these raw materials is not as great when they occur near the point of use. This section of the survey is devoted t o a consideration of the raw materials of all kinds occurring in Alabama, listed in
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 47,No. 11
Resources the approximate order of their importance. The first one is the cornerstone of chemical production, coal.
COAL Despite his recent temporary fall from eminence, Old King Coal still deserves a prominent place among our natural resources (16-17, 68-29, 4 1 ) . Only two of the different types of coal are found in Alabama, bituminous and lignitic. The lignite lies nearly 200 miles south of Birmingham and, although present in considerable quantity (25,000,000 to 40,000,000 tons in one locality) and easily mined from the surface, has not been and is not now exploited. There is no anthracite coal in Alabama, no cannel coal, and no important deposit of peat.
DISTRIBUTION
OF
ALABAMA COAL%
I . WARRIOR FIELD
LIGNITE
2 . C A H A S A FIELD
3. COOSA FIELD
4. PLATEAU F I E L D -
40 MILL
O
Figure 1
s
been carried on in the Warrior field a t various times. The Warrior field is not unduly troubled by large faults, though small ones are numerous. The bituminous bearing area totals 8000 square miles, most of which is underlain by several seams. Production of coal is shown in Table I.
Table I.
C o d Production
Year 1919 1922 1926 1928 1951 1953
Tons
Total production from the beginning has been 874,212,000 net tons; of the present production about 35% is used for coking, and 6570 for steam and domestic purposes. Commercial reserves have been estimated a t figures ranging from 5 to 60 billion tons, all depending of course on the definition of the word commercial. The U. S.Geological Survey gives 33 billion tons as recoverable reserves. Representative analyses of the important seams are shown in Table I1 (8). The lignite ( 4 ) lies in the Nanafalia formation which stretches across South Alabama in a wide curve. The deposits are scattered, and only one, south of Troy, has been systematically explored. Exceptional amounts of sulfur, up to 7%, have been found in some of the lignite, not in the form of pyrites, but as organic sulfur, while the percentage of lime in the ash of several samples is also remarkably high, No estimate of t.he total quantity of lignite can be made. A noteworthy feature of the Alabama coal industry is the interesting experiment under way a t Gorgas, near Birmingham, in which coal is incompletely burned underground, in place, with the idea of using the resulting combustible gases for power production or for synthesis ( I d , 1 4 ) . The effect of using oxygen instead of air for burning, and the employment of the sand-frac technique for breaking up the coal in the seam, adapted from the oil production industry, have been studied. This experiment, financed by the Alabama Power Co. and the U. S. Bureau of Mines, may lead to the effective utilization of high ash, highly inclined seams in the less well developed Alabama coal fields. -4t present the Warrior field is much more productive than all the others combined. A t the Southern Research Inst'itute in Birmingham work is proceeding on a study of the more economical use of Alabama coal, to extract from it some of the complex materials built by nature before using it to generate power.
The distribution of bituminous coal and lignite is shown in Figure 1. There are four areas containing bituminous, only two OIL AND GAS of which produce any great quantity of coal today. These are, in order of importance, the Warrior (67), Cahaba, Plateau, and illabama is a very minor oil and gas state. N o gas is produced Coosa ( 1 6 ) fields. Domestic, coking, steam, high volatile, and commercially today, although some six wells in the northwest low volatile coals are all found. On Lookout Mountain in the part of the state are apparently capable of flowing 300,000 to gorge of Little River is found a 28-inch seam of low volatile (18 to 20%) semianthracite coal, still undeveloped. The ash content varies from 470 Table 11. Coal Seam Analyses in the Black Creek seam to a figure even too high Ash for washing. In general, Alabama coals are rather &!teniw high in ash, so that the number of coal washers TeinperVolatile Fixed Moisaturc, in the state is quite large. Material Carbon Ash Sulfur ture ' F. B.t.u. Blaok Creek The thickness of the seams commercially used 0.6 2.9 2850 14,450 varies between 2 and 10 feet with an average of 4. (Warrior) 31.2 63.3 2.6 1.0 1.9 15,590 P r a t t (Warrior) 30.5 63.5 4.1 0.84 2.8 2520 12,940 Mining conditions are particularly good in the Mary Lee (Warrior) 28.4 56.9 12.6 0.8 2.4 . , 9.1 Warrior field where the dip of the seams is slight ~ ~ ~ ~ 36.0 ~ ~52.5 ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ b13,350 a (Coosa) 27.15 63.80 7.6 1.75 1.45 .. and slope mining can be profitably employed. Underwood (Plateau) 19.0 65.9 11.5 1.40 3.5 ., 12;ioo Dry Lignite (Pike Shafts are, however, used by some large producers. 49.2 45.7 5.1 .. .. .. Cy.) The Cahaba seams are more highly inclined, as Lignite as received 31.6 29.4 3.3 1:95 35:7 .. are those in the Coosa district. Strip mining has November 1955
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
2331
)
400,000 cubic feet of dry gas per day each, and small commercial fields existed of old a t Fayette and Huntsville. The oil production in south Alabama carries hardly any gas. Some of these small gas wells in the north will probably be used soon to help carry the peak winter load of a local company in their territory which obtains its main supply from the Southern Natural Gas Co. They will be shut down in the summer, and in effect will serve as convenient storage.
The carbonate deposits of the state are classified according 'to composition rather than age, the usual geological basis. Quarrying conditions are not always ideal, but a careful search for suitable outcrops will in many cases be rewarded. Carbonate occurrences are shown in Figure 2 and are divided into four groups. 1. Pure limestones, carrying a t least 95% calcium carbonate, are practically confined to the northern half of the state. The Newala stone 40 miles south of Birmingham shows uniform analyses running between 96.1 and 99.13y0 calcium carbonate. The Fort Payne limestone lies directly above the iron ore on Red Mountain, a t Birmingham, and likewise is found in the Keller quarry near Sheffield. It shows 96.89 to 97.61% calcium carbonate, with low magnesium. The Bangor limestone is exposed a t numerous points in the Tennessee Valley, including Waco, Rockwood, and Guntersville. Two typical analyses show 98.23 and 97.9% calcium carbonate. The Sylacauga marble quarries (97) 50 miles southeast of Birmingham have much waste rock, all of which runs well over 95% calcium carbonate. 2. Il'onmagnesian limestones contain less than 5y0 magnesium carbonate and less than %yo calcium carbonate, and are particularly useful for portland cement manufacture (5). Most important of these is the Conasauga limestone which supplies three cement plants around Birmingham but is variable in composition elsewhere. Usually the outcrops are low and present drainage problems. Other limestones of similar analysis are scattered well over North Central Alabama. The Selma Chalk, very low in magnesium, is an impure clayey stone underlying what is known as the Black Belt, 125 miles south of Birmingham. It also supplies a cement mill. I t s analysis is shown in Table 111.
Table 111. Selma Chalk
OISTRIBUTI O N OF LIMEITONE 0 00LOMlTE
7% .~ 13.32 7.74 73.94 1.40 0.27
Si02 RpOi CaCOs MgCO1
908
ALABAMA .....:::i:iii:::
........... ::.: ::::: LlME8TONE 8 O O L O M I T E
i::: I,:::::::::.
iii:ii.
HIGH
ORADE
OOLOMITE
Figure 2
Oil production began in Alabama 11 years ago, and has been so far confined to three fields, Gilbertown, So. Carlton, and Pollard, all in southwest Alabama. The oil is heavy, 19 A.P.I. a t Gilbertown, 14 in So. Carlton, and 29 a t Pollard. Production in 1953 was 1,696,414 barrels, with a total production to date of 8,054,260. Reserves in the three fields are estimated a t 15,000,000 barrels. There are four refineries or treatment plants, two a t Tuscaloosa, one a t Mobile, and one a t Cordova, with asphalt one of the chief products. Although no commercial amount of gas is actually produced in Alabama, proximity to t h e large gas fields of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas has permitted the use of natural gas throughout the state for industrial and chemical as well as domestic purposes. Hydrogen is produced from natural gas a t the large government ammonia plant a t Wilson Dam, and during the warm off-peak months natural gas is extensively used by paper mills, steam power plants, and cement mills. The Southern Natural Gas Co. is the chief supplier. A large local source of supply would be very welcome, however.
LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE Limestone (43) of all degrees of purity enters into the chemical industry in many ways-in portland cement ( 5 , IS) in making lime which in turn is used for causticizing in the paper and other industries, and in making glass and other ceramic materials.
2332
3. Magnesium limestones have not been studied carefully as they have too much magnesium (5 to 25Y0 magnesium carbonate) for chemical or cement use, and too little to be used as a dolomite, but they, of course, are useful for many purposes. 4. True dolomites occur in the state, but the only dolomite quarried on an extensive scale is the Ketona which is found in the Birmingham valley and also 4 miles north of Montevallo. It is the source of fluxing material for the local iron blast furnaces. The average analysis of several thousand cars going to the blast furnace is shown in Table IV. Table IV. Ketona Dolomite % 1.25 1.00 54.00 43.00
Si02
RzOi
CaCO:
MgCOa
The Montevallo deposit has less than 1% of materials other than magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate. This Ketona rock is of all the local dolomites the most suitable as a source of magnesium and magnesium compounds, since the others with one exception are cherty. This exception is the Chewacla dolomite, near Opelika, 130 miles southeast of Birmingham, which contains from 42 to 44% magnesium carbonate, with very low silica and other oxides. The broad outcrops of dolomite shown on the geological map of the state have been so named largely from their appearance, and many of them are really limestone with very little magnesium.
SALT One piercement salt dome l S / a miles in diameter has been found in Alabama a t McIntosh, 40 miles north of Mobile. From the surface to the salt is only 450 feet, and the Mathieson-
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 47, No. 11
~
-
Resources Alabama Co. is now operating a large alkali-chlorine plant on the site. Solid salt has been found a t a depth of 8400 feet in Wilcox County, and below 12,000 feet in Clarke and in Washington counties. Salt springs and wells are found near Jackson, in South Alabama, and an occasional deep well here and there is salty to the taste. There is some reason to believe that the Hatchetigbee Anticline running northwest and southeast for 35 miles in southwest Alabama owes its existence to deep lying salt forcing its way up, but this is yet to be confirmed by deep wells.
IRON ORE Iron ore (6, 7 , 19, 34, 35) is only indirectly a raw material for chemical industry, but for two reasons it is necessary to include it here; its presence close to coal and dolomite is largely responsible for the very existence of Birmingham, the chief industrial city of the state, and the need for coke to smelt it has brought into being the immense coking industry with its numerous chemical by-products. Steel, of course, is the most important structural material and the two immense steel plants using adjacent iron ore provide a local source of building material for chemical as well as other industries. Locations of iron ore deposits are shown in Figure 3.
large, not less than 2.5 billion tons, but the utilization of much of the siliceous material awaits a practical method of beneficiation, which should be much easier than with the Minnesota taconite. Low phosphorus sinter from the Copper Hill-Ducktown area of Tennessee is also used as is material from the Lake Superior district. Foreign ore from various countries, especially Venezuela, comes up the Warrior River or over the railroad from LMobile. The brown ore, limonite, occurs in many places over the state, particularly in the northern half, scattered through clay. It furnishes only a small ( 10yo)percentage of the total used, though it is a desirable addition to the furnace charge. I n emergencies such as in World War I and I1 its percentage increases greatly. Reserves of this ore are difficult to estimate but are usually given as about 30,000,000 tons. Xear Sylacauga are found the gray ores, hematites high in silica and not a t present used although their content is fairly high (45%). Like the siliceous red ores, their utilization awaits a practical method of beneficiation. There is ample ore in the district to ensure the continuance of the iron and steel industry, not only along present lines, but on a greatly enlarged scale. Typical analyses of the three types are given in Table V.
Table V. Iron Ore Red Ore 37.0 13.44 16.20 3.18 0.37 0.07 12.24
Fe Si02
CaO
41203
P
S
co,
Brown Ore 48.54 11.22 0.84 3.61 0.38 0.09
...
0.41
.... ..
.. .. ..
...
K20
Gray Ore 43.34 28.30 0.53
2.08
The fortunate proximity of coking coal, iron ore, and fluxing stone is, of course, responsible for the existence of the iron and steel industry in Alabama.
y:
i
SILICA Quartzite. This material is now ueed particularly for silica brick manufacture; the Harbison-Walker Co. a t Fairfield utilizes it in this way. T t occurs in a t least two places. The Weisner quartzite is found in Cherokee and Calhoun counties, and what appears to be the same material outcrops near Clairmont Springs, in Clay. Quarrying conditions are good, and there is an abundance of rock close to a railroad line. Representative analyses of Weisner material are shown in Table VI.
Table VI. Weisner Quartzite Si09
RzOa
%
%
98.1 1.3
97.75 1.62
Tripoli. DepoPits of tripoli are found in the extreme northwest corner of the state, near Riverton, and on the Seaboard Railroad east of Birmingham, close to Tredegar. Analyses are shown in Table VII. There are two important types of ore in the district, red and brown. The so-called red ore is a hematite which occurs intermittently from Vance, 40 miles southwest of Birmingham, northeast as far as Virginia, but assumes commercial proportions only a t certain points, notably near Birmingham and Bessemer, and between the two cities. This ore varies from siliceous to self fluxing, but is not by any means high grade, the average iron content of material going to the furnaces runs about 36%. Underground mining is necessary with this ore. The total amount of available and prospective red ore is very
November 1955
Table VII. Tripoli % Si02 Fe Ignition loss
96.50 0.50 0.80
% 98.15 0.35 0.80
% 85.70 0.60 4.80
These deposits are not of the hard block type, but crumble readily. Diatomaceous earth is not found in the state; the nearest occurrence is a t Milton, Fla.
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
2333
Glass Sand. Sand obtained in the past from crumbling sandstones near the Coosa River a t Ohatchee offers considerable promise, but has not been tested except on a small scale. Sand&ones from near Spruce Pine, in the northwest part of the state, also approach glass sand quality. However, the glass plant a t Montgomery is now using sand from Georgia. Much of the sand and gravel used in construction, not chemical work, is dredged from the rivers, and in addition large deposits of Cretaceous age are located near Montgomery and Tuskegee. An analysis of an average sample of gravel dredged from the Warrior River yielded 97.4% silica. Exceptionally pure gravel suitable for making ferrosilicon occurs in Elmore County a few miles north of Montgomery. No occurrences of novaculite are known in the state though material approaching it in character outcrops in the northwest corner. Molding sand is discussed in a bulletin issued by the Alabama Geological Survey ( 1 ) .
ing. No diaspore clays like those of Missouri have yet been reported. Three clay analyses are given in Table IX.
SHALES There are shales ($0,S I , Sb) of all geological ages and characteristics in the northern half of the state. Coal Measure shales flanking the Birmingham Valley on both sides supply necessary material for the three portland cement plants there. These shales are found all over the coal fields and also provide material for brick manufacture at Lovick and elsewhere. Carbonaceous shales have been used in the making of lightweight aggregate, and the semicrystalline shales near Sylacauga were used for a time in brick making. The Chattanooga shale near Blountsville carries small amounts of uranium and may be a potential source for that important element. The composition of three shales is given in Table X.
CLAYS AND SHALES Bulletins on clays ( 4 0 ) and shales are available, so that only a rough classification with brief descriptions and analyses, when available, will be given. Primary Kaolins. The product of the weathering of feldspar in place is primary kaolin. This is found in East Alabama in the igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sufficient material concentrated in one place to justify exploitation has not been seen by the author, though the quality of these clays and especially their color after burning is exceptional. Like most other primary kaolins they occur mixed with mica, quartz, and feldspar, and require separation. Analysis of kaolin from the Indian mica mine, 7 miles north of Dadeville is shown in Table VIII. Sedimentary (Fairly Pure). A pure white secondary kaolin occurs in Marion County a t Chalk Bluff about 7 miles from a railroad. The Thomas Alabama Kaolin Co. of Baltimore is operating this property, and much of the clay is used to coat ammonium nitrate from the ammonia plant at Wilson Dam. Ordinary pottery clays are fairly common throughout the state, especially in the Tuscaloosa formation.
Indian Mica Mine Kaolin
Table VIII.
% Si02 AlzOs Fe CaO Alkalies
Si02 AlzOs Fez08 CaO F2ion
Coal Measure 5G.10
Carbonaceous 51.40 21.90 5.70 0.94 1.20 6.20
22.50 6.70 1.25 1.40
...
Calcareous, Colbert County 55.52 24.70
...
4.78 1.59
...
BAUXITE Bauxite is mined commercially in southeast Alabama in Barbour and Henry counties, but is used chiefly for chemical and abrasive purposes and not for making aluminum. Just under 40,000 tons were mined in 1952. Other deposits occur in northeast and northwest Alabama but are not now being worked. Table X I shows analyses of bauxite.
Table XI. Si02 AlzOa Fez08
Ti02
Cherokee County 11.7 57.3 0.4 2.8
Bauxite Barbour County
Margerum
11.2 42.5 19.2 1.8
26.8 49.26 3.71
...
trace
0.11 0.68
Circular 7 and Bulletin 47 of the Alabama Geological Survey should be consulted for further details.
Clay Analyses
FULLER’S EARTH
(Per cent) Marion County
Fire Clay, Bibbville
Pottery Clay, Tuscaloosa County
47.20 37.76 0.91
74.25 18.44
65.35 28.65
0.52
0.60 0.86
...
... 0.40
14: 24
...
.. . .
...
Some of the numerous seams in the coal fields of Alabama carry layers of clay a t their base. One of these, the Black Creek seam, is used for the manufacture of buff brick. Fire clays of excellent quality (cone 21) underlie this same seam a t certain points and are used extensively in the local manufacture of refractories. No ball clays have so far been located in Alabama though certain areas in the southern part of the state are worth prospect-
2334
Shale Analyses (Per cent)
43.21 37.27
Table IX.
Si02 AlzOs FezOs CaO Nap0 HzO
Table X.
Fuller’s earth is a variety of clay important for its use in oil refining, both vegetable and mineral. Very little is produced in Alabama a t present, but there are several localities worth investigating if a local supply is desired. One of these is between Louisville and Clayton, in Barbour County; another near Needham in Choctaw County, and still another a t White’s Bluff, on the Tombigbee River. The Tallahatta formation, which crosses the state from east to west well below Montgomery, carries Fuller’s earth a t many places, but little development has taken place.
GRAPHITE Seventy miles east of Birmingham are found the major flake graphite reserves of the United States (11,93, 58). The vicinity of Ashland in Clay County contains the greatest part of the deposits with subordinate amounts in Coosa and Chilton counties. These beds which occur in mica schists, are not high grade; the ore mined averages about 2.5 to 3% carbon. The beds are
I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G] C H E M I S T R Y
Vol. 47, No. 11
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Resources regular and of good size. So far, only the weathered upper part of the beds has been quarried and in addition to the large tonnage of this remaining there is an enormous tonnage of hard blue unweathered graphite rock of equal carbon content, not yet touched. All these deposits await the advent of a refining process superior to or in addition to the present mechanical process, which still leaves 8 to 10% impurities in the flake. During World War I over 20 mills were in operation in Alabama, but today only one or two mills continue to produce intermittently. No amorphous graphite has been mined in the state. The following analyses are typical: Rock Carbon
% 3.2
No. 1 Flake
Dust
%
Carbon Ash
92.9
7.1
% Carbon Ash
79.4 20.6
%
TALC
SiOn RnOa
..
..
3.3
8.8
WATER
Potassium Compounds
CaO MgO Kz0 Nan0
Potash Shale from Shades Valley
81.75 9.20 1.09 1.60 1.82 0.36
MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS
.. .. ..
S o potassium salts like those of Stassfurt and Carlsbad have been located. Occasional samples of high potash feldspar have been brought in, and some local shales are relatively high in potash. Greensand occurs in South Alabama, but it is low in potash. The gray iron deposits of the Sylacauga area are exceptionally high in potash for an iron ore, carrying over 2% Kz0. Analyses of greensands and shales are shown in Table XII.
70
A talc deposit (30)of excellent quality occurs a t Winterboro, in Talladega County. This is now being worked and the talc processed a t Alpine nearby.
Iron pyrites was mined during World War I a t Pyriton in East Alabama, but the mines are now closed, A little copper occurs along with the iron in the sulfide. No slate has been mined commercially, but a phyllite with an attractive rich purple color occurs east of Calera. Tin ore (cassiterite) has been sporadically mined in Coosa County but without much success. High grade manganese occurs a t Walnut Grove in rather small quantity, while low grade ore is scattered rather widely thoughout East Alabama. Traces of nickel and cobalt (36)occur in Cherokee County and near Gadsden associated with manganese. No deposit of phosphate rock of commercial grade is known. No copper, zinc, lead, tin, arsenic, antimony, silver, or gold are being mined today, though the past production of gold has been considerable. A recent discovery of a rare earth mineral in an unlikely spot in south Alabama has aroused considerable interest, but the extent of the find is unknown.
POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS
Greensand
MICA
7.83 48.12 43.04
A chemical refining process supplemental to mechanical concentration has been tried out on a pilot plant scale, and has been successful in bringing the carbon content of the flake to99%. I t s commercial application is not certain. Small amounts of vanadium have been detected in the green mica that accompanies the graphite in the mica schist.
T a b l e XII.
Ochers are used in linoleum manufacture and as a constituent of paints. There has been production in Alabama from several points, especially from Jackson, in Clarke County, but not on a large scale. Bulletin 41, of the Geological Survey of Alabama, is concerned with Alabama ochers.
Muscovite sheet mica of high quality has been mined intermittently and is still being produced, but the amount is relatively small, probably not more than $25,000 worth per year. This is all purchased by the Federal Government.
Ash of No. 1 Flake AlnOa Fez08 Si02
OCHERS
..
..
Cartersville, Ga.
.. ..
BARITE Barite (barium sulfate) occurs a t Pratt’s Ferry on the Cahaba River, near Alexandria, a t Leeds, and a t a number of other points, usually embedded in residual clay (3). Some mining has been done, but the production has not been large. The Pratt’s Ferry occurrence is probably the best, but this barite contains appreciable amounts of fluoride.
Industrial Water (39, 49-45). Like the Southeast in general, Alabama is well supplied with soft water, both surface and underground. The average rainfall for the state is close to 52 inches, most of it coming in the winter and spring. The chief rivers are the Tennessee, Coosa, Warrior, Tombigbee, and Chattahoochee; figures indicating their flow are shown in Table XIII.
Table XIII.
SULFUR S o deposits of native sulfur are known in Alabama, but anhydrite occurs on top of the McIntosh salt dome and gypsum is known in Jackson County and in scattered crystals in the coastal plain. None of the deposits are apparently commercial. a
Warrior Coosa Tennessee Tombigbee Chattahoochee Affected by regulation.
Flow of Rivers
(Feet/second) Maximum Discharge 223,000 146,000 444,000 217,000 134,000
Minimum 57a
1,300 3 , oooa 382 224
Mean 7,933 13,920 51,120 22,760 5,701
ASBESTOS
h-o chrysotile asbestos occurs in the state, but the amphibole variety, used for heat insulation and similar purposes, is found intermittently along a 10-mile belt starting near the Central of Georgia Railroad a few miles west of Dadeville and running northeast. This material is very similar to that obtained a t Sal1 Mountain in Georgia. Very little exploratory work has been done here, but the amount of asbestos is quite considerable, and the rock is easily quarried. None of it has so far been used commercially. November 1955
Analyses of the waters of these rivers are given in Table XIV. Natural lakes of any size are few in Alabama, but the building of power and navigation dams on the Tennessee, Coosa, Tallapoosa, and Warrior has created a series of large artificial lakes containing altogether 400 square miles of clear soft water. The present, project of the Alabama Power Co. to build five new dams on the Coosa River and one on the Warrior, the last to be an immense storage dam, will add a t least 100 square miles to this
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
2335
conditions in the state for the development of large quantities of ground water, while the (P.P. M.) Palaeoaoic in the Tennessee Valley of north BicarSi02 Na Mg Ca Fe C1 So4 bonates Total Alabama ranks second in the number of installaWarrior at Tuscations and development of ground water supplies. loosa ,. 4.00 3.00 6.00 Trace 3.00 10.00 25.00 51.00 Coosa at Mitchell Here large yields of ground water depend on Dam 7.80 1.70 8.00 15.10 Trace 3.10 2.00 ... 24.40 Tenneesee 4.00 3.45 2.68 15.00 0.60 3.00 6.48 . . . 35.21 local geologic conditions, such as the presence of Chattahooohee 12.00 5.20 1.60 4.10 0.02 3.20 4.30 ... 30.42 large springs or fractures or solution openings, The immense springs a t Huntsville and Tuscumbia indicate the vast potential supplies of pure ground water in the valley. The central marked area figure and greatly increase the supply of water available to also in the Coastal Plain is well supplied with ground water. The industry. These artificial lakes are confined to the north half of Piedmont area (east) is the least favorable as few wells produce the state. Table XV shows an analysis of the water of Wheeler over 10 gallons per minute. Lake on the Tennessee near Decatur. To date no regulations covering the drilling of water wells and the use of artesian water in general have been laid down, and it is legal for a landowner to drill any number of wells on his property, and to waste the water from them if he sees fit, without regard to Table XV. Wheeler Lake Water the effecton his npighbors. This condition is likely to be corrected % before long by appropriate legislation. Many cities including 3.00 Fa the capital, Montgomery, rely on ground water for a municipal 5.00 Si02 16.40 Ca supply. 3.28 hfg The general ground water level does not seem to be dropping 2.99 Na so, 6.89 throughout the state though its fluctuations are wide. Near the 1.42 NO8 cities however it has dropped seriously, to the extent of causing 5.00 c1 along the coast the invasion of salt water into certain horizons. Analyses of ground water from different areas shown in Table XVI * Wells yielding from 100 to 1000 gallons per minute can be drilled in much of the mapped area. Throughout the Coastal Plain there are terrace and recent alluvial deposits adjacent to streams that are important sources of large quantities of ground water. Probably one of the largest developments of this source of water supply is a t Courtaulds adjacent to the Mobile River in Mobile County. An analysis of water from this source is shown in Table XVII.
Table XIV.
River Water Analyses
POWER
(COMMERCIAL)
ALABAMA -
= - -L A R Q E p
QUANTITY
4PYILES
Figure 4 Floods on the Alabama rivers are not unknown, but their effect
is being minimized by the vigilant warning service of the Corps of Engineers and the Tennessee Valley Authority, as well as by the manipulation of the heights of the various reservoirs. The new storage dam to be built on the upper Warrior will no doubt have a moderating influence on the flood height of the lower river. Ground Water (9, 10, 21, 24-26, 33-44). Ground water, including artesian, is in reasonably good supply throughout the state, but particularly in the areas shown in Figure 4. The lowest Coastal Plain division has the most favorable geologic
2336
Alabama is fortunate in having both hydro power and also the necessary coal for steam power, the latter located in an ideal position, right on a navigable river. Oil and natural gas from neighboring states are also used for steam production during the warm months. Three dams on the Coosa River and three on the Tallapoosa River have a generating capacity altogether of 490,000 kiloJmtts. Five of these are run of river plants, the sixth, Martin Dam, provides ample storage. Steam power plants a t Gorgas on the Warrior River and Gadsdenon the Coosa, and the Chickasaw plant a t Mobile and the Barry plant a short distance above it on the Alabama River furnish altogether 890,000 kilowatts. This gives a total present generating capacity for the Alabama Power Co. of 1,380,000 kilowatts. Five more dams are to be built shortly on the Coosa and one on the Warrior, and a povrer plant to be installed a t an existing government navigation dam on the Warrior. These will add a t least 300,000 kilowatts to the system. Steam plants will also be added as required and, following the precedent of several decades, it is estimated that the total generating capacity of the company will be doubled by 1965. I n the northern quarter of the state the Tennessee Valley Authority operates three large dams, Wilson, Wheeler, and Guntersville, with a combined capacity of 792,200 kilowatts. Two steam plants, one a t Sheffield, the other near Scottsboro (under construction), help to balance the system with 1,459,000 kilowatts. Of course the whole generating capacity of the TVA, much of it outside the state, and that of the entire Southern Co., of which the Alabama Power Co. is a member, is available when needed, and the two groups interchange power when it becomes expedient.
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 47, No. 11
Resources Table XVI.
Ground Water
(P.P.M.)
Huntsville Spring 16.00
Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride h-itrate Total hardness, soap Dksolved solids
0.06
39.00 5.50
1.40
0.60 129.00 5.30 1.70
...
Tuscaloosa fm. City of hfontgomery Miocene Well City of Foley 611 Feet Well 134 Deep Feet Deep 4.20 15.00 1.02 0.02 0.33 0.30 0.60 0.30 104.00 ... 2.60 4.00 240.00 0.20 23.00 6.00 9.80 0.00 1 .oo 2.70 0.49 3.00 5.20 33.30 272.00
...
essentially unimpaired, has been modified by statutes-Alabama Legklature-1947 Henderson-Swift; 1949 Boutwell-Swiftwhich control pollution through the Water Improvement Advisory Commission, made up of representatives from industry, and various state bodies, and headed by the State Health Officer. Its practice has been so far to work in cooperation with municipalities and industries rather than to adopt drastic measures. Air pollution has not yet become very serious in Alabama, but temporary trouble has developed here and there, and as industry increases it will no doubt become a serious consideration. CELLULOSE MATERIALS
The mean average temperature of the state is 62’ F., with a crop-growing season from frost to frost of about 220 days. The temperature in the winter rarely goes below 15’ F., and in the summer above 96OF. Thewinters are short and the summers long. Heat prostrations are, however, almost unknown and the lack of snow ensures freedom from traffic difficulties like those encountered in the North and West. There is not the slightest difficulty in working out of doors throughout the entire year, and a much less expensive type of construction is necessary for factories and houses than where protection against extreme cold must be provided. No hurricane has penetrated Alabama within historical time, though damage from local tornadoes does occur now and then. The recent spread of air conditioning through offices, factories, and stores, as well aa homes, has taken the edge off the long summers, and made life much pleasanter for all indoor workers.
Trees (27-28). Just as coal is coming t o be considered a chemical raw material, so cellulose and possibly lignin as contained in trees, shrubs, annual plants, and bamboo must be placed in the same category. The rapid growth of the pulp and paper industry in the state, essentially a chemical industry, has directed attention to these materials. Trees and shrubs are also the source of other chemical products, such as naval stores and tanning extracts. So far, the gymnosperms (pines) have proved the most valuable trees for chemical purposes. There are four species of pine rather common throughout the district. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) is the famous yellow pine, in general demand for lumber, and almost gone except for second growth stands. Loblolly or field pine (Pinus taeda) is very abundant in the South and rapidly reproduces itself. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) is likewise abundant in the state, rather commoner in the northern than southern section. Spruce pine (Pinus Virginiana) is rather scattered and flourishes in the northern half of the state. Pin’us Caribaea, the slash pine, and Pinus Glabra are confined to the southern part of the state. Details of the occurrence and distribution of these trees and of all other trees and shrubs of the state have been reported (17’). The oaks are especially abundant and display many species. Although the pines are still preferred, the hardwoods, gum, and oak are gradually coming into the picture as suitable pulping materials. Their use will greatly increase the available raw material for cellulose and lignin. Selective cutting and replanting are now widely practiced. The State Department of Forestry and the companies owning timber lands are enforcing rules to lessen fire losses. If paper is considered pure cellulose, which is correct except for newsprint, the production of tree cellulose far surpasses all the cotton cellulose grown. There are four kraft paper mills, and one newsprint mill in the state. An observer flying over Alabama would almost conclude that the state was not yet settled, so general and dense are the forests. Only the Tennessee Valley and the Black Belt, both underlain by limestone, seem to be free from forest. The tree growth is very rapid and is rivalled only by growth in the extreme Korthwest.
HEALTH CONDITIONS
COTTON
In 1952 the death rate of the state was 8.7 per 1000, which compares with 9.6 for the country as a whole. Yellow fever of course and typhoid have vanished, malaria is almost gone, hospitals have muItiplied and a magnificent medical center is being developed in Birmingham. The State Board of Health is vigilant in watching water supplies and in taking care of the health of the population.
The state produces annually about 1,000,000 bales of cotton, which of course is pure cellulose, and the corresponding amount, 400,000 tons, of cottonseed, the source of cottonseed oil and other products. A considerable amount of the “fuzz” (hull fiber) still remaining on the seed after the removal of the linters is taken off in Birmingham by a special process.
7.30 123.00
...
Table XVII.
C o u r t a u l d s Water (P.P.M.)
Silica Iron Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Bicarbonate Sulfate Chloride Fluoride Nitrate Total hardness Dissolved solids
Terrace Deposits Courtsulds No. 1 Well 124 Feet Deep 9.40 0.14 0.60 0.20 2.50 0.50 6.00
2.50 2.80 0.00 0.10 2.00 27.00
There seems to be no saturation point for power, and the companies have difficulty in keeping up with the demand. Steam plants follow one another without a break, and even the le53 desirable hydro sites are being developed. We have by no means reached the end of these in Alabama, even with the prograin of the Alabama Power Co. nom under way. CLIMATE
WATER AND AIR POLLUTION
COTTONSEED
The common law, which provides that the water of a river or stream must be delivered to downstream users with its quality
The large production-400,000 tons-of cottonseed justifies its inclusion among the raw materials. Most of the state oil
November 1955
I N D U S T R I A L A N Dl E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
233’1
mills merely extract the oil, sometimes applying the first step of the refining process, and ship the product to Savannah or some other refining center where the final products are made. Besides the oil, cottonseed yields the meal, a valuable food for stock, lint or short fiber cotton, useful for nitrocellulose and rayon manufacture, and the hulls which so far have been used as cattle food, fertilizer, and for fuel. Lately, the sugar, xylose, has been extracted from the hulls on a semicommercial scale, and its commercial extraction awaits only the development of uses for it. The desugarized hulls make good carbon black. The composition of the whole cottonseed is shown in Table
XVIII.
such as the manufacture of starch. If cotton stalks and corn stalks ever find effective utilization there will be plenty of the raw material available. The sweet potato (Ipomoea) grows freely throughout Alabama and may serve as a source of starch if methods of extraction prove satisfactory.
NAVAL STORES Turpentine and rosin are produced from the living trees of two species (palustris and Curibaeu) of pine, growing mostly in South Alabama. I n addition, old stumps of these two species are gathered and distilled a t Bay Minette to furnish wood turpentine.
-
SEA INDUSTRY Table XVIII.
Cottonseed Composition and By-products Water 8.10
Minimum Maximum Average
Albuminoids
Oil
Soluble Carbohydrates Sugar
13.62 29.70 18.38
10.40 29.34 19.45
7.58 36.70 22.57
17.51 9.92
By-product-1
Ash
17.60 32.40 22.57
2.89 8.00 4.74
SECONDARY R A W MATERIALS
Ton Cottonseed Pounds
Hulls Lint Meal Crude oil
Table XIX.
Woody Fiber
89 1 20 800 298
Cottonseed and Peanut Hull Composition Commercial Peanut Hulls, Machine Hulled
Moisture Fat Protein Crude fiber Nitrogen free extract Carbohydrates Ash
Cottonseed Hulls
9.83 3.37 7.30 56.60 18.90 75.50 4.33
9.7 1.g
4.6
43.8 37.3 81.1 2.7
% 1.08 1.23 0.74 17.82
Cottonseed meal is a very concentrated food, high in protein, and successful efforts have been made recently to produce a meat substitute from it for human consumption.
PEANUTS These can be regarded as chemical raw materials only in so far as they are pressed to obtain peanut oil. The latter is used for soap making, like cottonseed oil, and to some extent as an edible oil. The production is not large, amounting to about 5,500,000 bushels of nuts, most of which are fed to stock directly. These are grown mostly in Southeast Alabama. Many eft’ortshave been made to find a use for peanut shells. The sugar, xylose, can be extracted from these as from cottonseed hulls, and paper has been made from them experimentally, but no commercial results have so far been obtained. The composition of cottonseed and peanut hulls are compared in Table XIX. A t Enterprise the peanut protein has been made into a synthetic fiber in a small way, following the similar use of peanut protein in Great Britain.
OTHER AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS Tung oil is produced near the Gulf Coast, where the tung trees grow freely. Corn is grown in large quantity for food, and some is even imported, so that at present there is not a surplus for chemical uses, 2338
Alabama has a coast line of some 50 miles, but does not depend on the sea to any extent for chemical raw materials. Oyster shells are however dredged from Mobile Bay t o supply the portland cement and the lime plant on its shores. There are available reserves of at least 40,000,000 cubic yards of these shells.
Several materials are produced in large quantity in the district which themselves serve as starting points for the manufacture of new products, or should do so. It is convenient, since the list is not a long one, to group these separately from the primary raw materials. Blast Furnace Slag. Roughly speaking one ton of slag is turned out per ton of pig iron. It j s used for
1. Ballasting railroad tracks Concrete constituent 3. Making slag brick and tile 4. Making slag lime cement, Puzzolan 2.
The “slag lime” cement plant a t North Birmingham manufacturing Magnolia cement is now one of the very few in the United States. Open Hearth Slag. The slag obtained from the open hearth steel furnaces of one company contains a considerable percentage of phosphate, enough to justify its use as a phosphate fertilizer, and this has acquired a very enviable reputation in the fertilizer field. It is possible to make a material running 15% P206,but it is convenient to reduce the pelcentage to 10. An analysis of blast furnace slag is shown in Table XX.
Table XX.
Blast Furnace Slag Composition Foundry
Si02
AlzOa\ FezOal
CaO
MgO
P
Basic
37.00 1~,.5n 41.50 4.00
34.00 16.50 48.50
..
i.b
S
i.’75
Coke. This may be regarded as a secondary raw material, in its metallurgical uses, as well as when wed for carbide and water gas production. No low temperat,ure carboniantion plants have so far been built, in Alabama, and the amount of gas house coke made is small. Table XXI show analyses of high temperature coke.
Table XXI.
Coke Analyses Furnaoe Coke
Volatile Fixed carbon Ash Sulfur
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
i.no 86. no 12.00 1 .on
Foundry Coke 0.5 88.9 9.0 0.6
Vol. 47, No. 11
Resources Naphthalene. A secondary raw material which should serve as the starting point for diverse products is naphthalene, produced by the coke ovens and the t a r distilleries t o the extent of some 1,500tons. One ton of coal produces about 4 pounds of naphthalene in high temperature coking. Light Oils, Benzene, Toluol, Xylol. These are produced of course in high temperature coking which supplies the coke for the Alabama blast furnaces. Benzene is used for phenol and diphenyl production within the state, as well as a n additive for motor fuel. Coke Oven Tar. A surplus of coke over tar is produced and used t o some extent as fuel. The enormous tonnage of cast iion pipe turned out in Alabama takes some of this t a r for dipping purposes. Manufactured Gas. The iion blast furnace may be looked upon as a huge gas producer making pig iron and slag a s byproducts. After using a8 much of its gas as is necessary to heat the air entering the furnace, a blast furnace always has a surplus which may be applied to other purposes, such as power production. h large modern blast furnace produces as much as 100,000,000 cubic feet of gas per 24 hours, and has two thirds of this available. So far as is known, no use is made of this gas except for heating or power purposes in the district, but enormous quantities are produced. A typical analysis of blast furnace gas is %
coz co
9.9 28.1 2.0
Hz
A typical coking ifi
N2
60.0
B.t.u.
90-100
analysis of
by-product
gas-high
Analysis
%
con Illuminants co
2.5 3.8 6.4 31.5
C H4
HZ
temperature
47.6 0.3
02
8.6
N2
B.t.u.
560
The coming of natural gas as a domestic fuel has tended t o crowd out other types of gas and has caused a large surplus of the by-product type. A synthetic ammonia plant (Ketona Chemical Co.) is under construction to utilize this gas for hydrogen and then ammonia production. Alabama Byproduct Co. and Hercules Powder Co. are partners in this effort.
LIME The abundance of high grade limestone in the state has naturally been reflected in lime production, and the same high quality of stone has caused the ratio of “chemical” (pure) lime t o total lime to be higher in Alabama than in most other states. Much of this lime is exported. It would seem that the large amount of waste rock at the Rockwood quarries in Franklin County, and the waste marble at Sylacauga, both very pure carbonates, would offer opportunities for lime production. It is not evident why “agricultural lime” and ground limestone for sandy lands have not been more widely used in the state, as there is no place in Alabama more than 60 miles from a good limestone bed. The chief deficiencies of Alabama in raw materials for chemical production are perhaps a large local supply of oil and gas, a gypsum deposit, phosphate rock, and of course the various metals except iron. No detailed study has been made so far of the offshore possibilities for oil and gas along the 50-mile Alabama coast line. November 1955
Two fine navigable waterways afford easy access to the interior of the state, so that necessary out of state materials may be brought in without undue expense. One of these is the fully developed Tennessee River, connecting with the Ohio and Mississippi systems which lead into the industrial north, the other the Tombigbee-Warrior river chain which runs from Mobile on salt water t o Birmingham and beyond,
BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) Adams, George I., “Molding Sands of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 35, 1929. (2) Adams, George I., Butts, Charles, Stephenson, L. W., and Cooke, C. W., “Geology of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 14,in cooperation with United States Geological Survey, 1926. (3) Adams, G. I., and Jones, Walter B., “Barite Deposits of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 45, 1940. f4) . , Barksdale. Jelks. “Lignite in Alabama.” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 33, 1&9. (5) Burchard, E. F., “Cement Industry in Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 14, 1940. (6) Burchard, Ernest F., and Andrews, Thomas G., “Iron Ore Outcrops of Red Mountain Formation in Northeast Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 19, 1947. (7) Burchard, Ernest F., Butts, Charles, and Eckel, Edwin C., “Iron Ores, Fuels, and Fluxes of the Birmingham District, Ala.,” U. S. Geological Survey Bull. 400, 1910. (8) Butts, Charles “Analyses of Alabama Coals,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 31, U. S. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 347, April 1, 1926. (9) Carlston, C. W., “Fluoride in Ground Water of Cretaceous Area of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 52, 1943. (10) Carlston, C. W., “Ground Water Resources of Cretaceous Area of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 18, 1944, in cooperation with the U. 8.Geological Survey. (11) Clemmer, J. B., Smith, R. W., Clemmons, B. H., and Stacy, R. H., “Flotation of Weathered Alabama Graphite Schists for Crucible Flake,” Alabama Geological Survey Bull. 49, 1941. (12) Dowd, James J., Elder, James L., Capp, J. P., and Cohen, Paul, “Experiment in Underground Gasification of Coal, Gorgas, Ala.,” U. S. Bur. Mines, R. I. 4164, 1947. (13) Eckel, Edwin C., Materials and Manufacture of Portland Cement, Smith, Eugene Allen, Cement Resources of Alabama, Bull. 8, 1904. (14) Elder, James L., Fies, M. H., Graham, Hugh G., Montgomery, R. C., Schmidt, L. D., and Wilkins, E. T., “Second Underground Gasification Experiment at Gorgas, Ala.,” U. S. Bureau of Mines, Rept. Invest. 4808, 1951. (15) Gibson, A. RI., “Coal Measures of Blount Mountain,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 5 , 1893. (16) Gibson, A. M., “Coosa Coal Field,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 7, 1895. (17) Harper, Roland If.,Economic Botany of Alabama, Pt. 2, “Woody Plants of Alabama, Their Distribution and Uses,’’ Alabama Geological Survey, Monograph 9, 1928. (18) Harper, Roland Ill., “Forests of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Monograph 10, 1943. (19) Huddle, J. W., “Brown Iron Ore of Chulafinnee District,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 17, 1941. (20) Hunter, C. E., and Richardson, G. I., “Thin-Bedded Sandstones of Guntersville Area,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 12, 1940. (21) Johnston, William D., Jr., “Ground Waters of Northern Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 16, 1939, in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey. (22) Jones, Walter B., “Index to Mineral Resources of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 28, 1926. (23) Jones, Walter B., “Summary Report on Graphite in Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 9, 1928. (24) LahIoreaux, P. E., “Ground-Water Geology of Tennessee Valley Area in Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 18, 1948. (25) LaMoreaux, P. E., “Fluoride in Tertiary Area of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 59, 1948. (26) LaMoreaux, P. E., Swindel, G. W., Jr., and Lanphere, C. R., “Ground-Water Resources of Huntsville Area,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 62, 1950. (27) LIcCalley, Henry, “On Warrior Coal Field,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 1, 1886. (28) 1TcCalIey. Henry, “Warrior Coal Basin,” illabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 10, 1900.
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
2339
(29) McCalley, Henry, and Gibson, A. M., “Coal Measures of Plateau Region of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 3, 1891. (30) Mchlurray, Lynn, and Bowles, Edgar, “Talc Deposits of Talla(31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36)
dega County, Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 16, 1941. McVay, Thomas N., and Toulmin, Lyman D., “Alabama Shale and Fire Clays,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 55, 1945. Penhallegon, W. J., “Building Sandstones of Northern Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Circ. 13, 1940. Peterson, Carl G., “Ground-Water Investigations in hlobile Area,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 58, 1947. Phillips, William B., “Iron Making in Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, RIonograph 3, 1896. Phillips, William B., “Iron Making in Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, 3rd ed., Monograph 7, 1912. Pierce, W. G., “Cobalt-Bearing Manganese in Deposits of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee,” U. S.Geological Survey Bull. 940-J, 1944.
(37) Prouty, W. F., “Preliminary Report on Crystalline and Other Marbles of Alabama,” Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 18, November 1916. (38) Prouty, William F., “Geology and Mineral Resources of Clay
(39)
(40) (41) (42) (43) (44)
County, with Special Reference to the Graphite Industry,” Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 12, 1923. Rice, Edward B., and Hardison, Clayton H., “Natural Water Losses from Selected Drainage Basins in Alabama,” Water Resources Branch, U. S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 56, 1945. Ries, Heinrich, rand Smith, Eugene A., Preliminary Rept. on Clays of Alabama, Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 6, 1900. Squire, Joseph, and Smith, Eugene A,, Cahaba Coal Field, Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 2, 1890. Tennessee Valley Authority Publication, Industrial Water Supplies of the Tennessee Valley Region, Knoxville, 1948. Toulmin, Lyman, Jr., Salt Mountain Limestones of Alabama, Alabama Geological Survey, Bull. 46, 1940. Toulmin, L. D., Lahloreaux, P. E., and Lanphere, C. R., Geology and Ground-Water Resources of Choctaw County, Alabama, Alabama Geological Survey, Special Rept. 21,
1951. (45) “Water Resources and Hydrology of Southeastern Alahama.”
U. S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Geological Survey of Alabama, Special Rept. 20, 1949.
RZCEIVED for review March 4, 1966.
ACCEPTED
September 12, 1 9 5 ; .
(Physical Resources)
KENTUCKY PHIL M. MILES AND JOSEPH H. TAYLOR AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT BOARD, FRANKFORT, KY.
T
H E physical resources of Kentucky include coal, petroleum, natural gas, limestone, fluorspar, clay, glass sands, construction sand and gravels, and t o a minor extent, iron, zinc, and lead. Brief statements on agriculture, power, and timber are given to round the resource picture. The purpose of this paper is to give the pertinent facts on each resource with respect t o location and occurrence, and quality and quantity, as are known. Water is also ttreated, since it is a prime requisite in most industrial operations. Figure 1 shows the principal physiographic regions of Kentucky which are used t o describe the location of the various resources and the principal coal producing districts. COAL
Coal is by far the outstanding mineral resource of Kentucky which ranks third in the United States in coal production with 63,535,507 tons in 1953, Kentucky coal occurs in two major fields, the Eastern Kentucky Coal Field and the Western Kentucky Coal Field. The Eastern Kentucky Coal Field is a portion of the great Appalachian Coal Field, which includes the coal areas of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. It comprises the eastern quarter of the state, an area of 10,450 square miles. The coal bearing rocks of the field are practically all of Penn-
2340
sylvanian age, which are the principal coal bearing rocks througliout the world. These rocks are essentially flat lying; the whole area comprises a broad basin with the rocks dipping gently from the western edge of the field to the southeast. This basin is referred t o geologically as the eastern Kentucky geosyncline which is an extension of the Pittsburgh Basin in western Pennsylvania. Physiographically, the region lies within the Cumberland Plateau, which has been deeply and extensively cut by streams. Elevations of hilltops range from 1000 feet in the northeast portion to 3800 feet in the southeast. The local relief-Le., elevation from stream valleys t o hilltops, ranges from a few hundred t o about 2000 feet. The principal method oif mining is the drift type -i.e., on the horizontal from a hillside. Only in recent years has there been any shaft mining in the area. There are over 100 names listed for coal seams in the Eastern Field. However, many of these coals are correlative-i.e., the same seam, so that the actual number of workable seams is something a great deal less. Seams being mined range in thickness from about 30 to 72 inches, with an average of the order of 40 to 45 inches. Major seams and thicknesses are shown in Table I. All the Kentucky coal is bituminous in rank and is of the high volatile groups A, B, or C. The highest quality coals occur in the Eastern Field and have a low ash and sulfur content and are high in B.t.u. value. In general, the best coal occurs in the southeast portion of the Eastern Field, where B.t.u. runs between 14,-
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Vol. 47, No. 11
