~hem~cul progress during the 75 years of the American Chemical Society THIS IS THE F O U R T H IN A SERIES OF H I S T O R I C A L PAPERS W H I C H H A V E BEEN PREPARED IN C O M M E M O R A T I O N OF T H E 7 5 T H A N N I V E R S A R Y O F T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L SOCIETY
THE FUTURE COURSE OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IS DETERMINED IN THE
CLASSROOMSOF HIGH SCHOOLS,COLLEGES,AND UNIVERSITIES
I Fortune
for March 1950 (19), a feature article entitled “The Chemical Century” bore this heading: “Midway, the chemical industry takes the lead. I n ten years, i t has more than doubled in plant, nearly tripled in sales, and no end is in sight.” The article went on to say: “Chemicals must now be considered the preAs of now, the chemical mier industry of the United States. industry cannot be matched by any other in growth, earnings, and potential for the future. It is almost wholly an industry founded, built, and run by chemists and engineers, men trained in the sciences.” For the teachers who trained the men for this outstanding industry, the Division of Chemical Education speaks. By no means all these teachers have been members of the division, but all have shared in the fundamental work upon which chemistry in America rests. It should be remembered that besides training chemists and chemical engineers, teachers of chemistry have given a fundamental scientific background t o students in the related fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, agriculture, and home economics, as well as to many students who elected to study chemistry for its cultural value. The teacher has also done his full share in the growth and development of the AMERICANCHEYICALSOCIETY. When the organization of a chemical society was proposed at the Priestley Centennial at Xorthumberland, Pa., in 1874, seventy-seven chemists were present. The president, the thirteen vice presidents, the secretary, the treasurer, and most of the members of the three committees a t that celebration were teachers of chemisCHEMICAL try (2). The first seven presidents of the AMERICAN SOCIETY nere teachers, as were twelve of the first thirteen, and eight of the last thirteen (1939-1951). Nearly 707, of all presidents have been educators ( 2 1 ) . At present, about 15y0 of the Society’s total membership are teachers ( 1 1 ). ilt the celebration of the tenth anniversary of the Divisions of Chemical Education and History of Chemistry in 1931, this statement was made, which is equally true today ( 2 0 ) : ?J
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The association of chemists in industry with those in education, which this Society throughout all its history has made possible, has been of untold value t o both groups. Kothing in America has done more to keep the one group from becoming pedantic or the other from being narrow. That this has been done with an entire absence of group consciousness in any unfortunate sense upon the part of either has been and is a marked achievement of the Society. The Division of Chemical Education, with its undoubted advantages, would be of questionable value, did it rob us as teachers
X U ~ ~ Xale ~SUM
of the priceless friendship and association of our fellow chemists who are not teachers. How far me have kept from so unfortunate a condition everyone familiar with the Society knows. I n every division a t the general meetings and in almost countless local and sectional meetings, the industrial and the educational chemists unite in an attack upon their common problems. For both, this is surely a genuine basis of education, for a t these meetings much of the real history of chemistry in America is recorded. When the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETYwas founded in Bpril 1876, the facilities for teaching chemistry were limited and the number of students was not large. Only 117 colleges and universities were established prior to 1845 and their total enrollment in 1850 was only 11,903 (26). Compare these with the figures given by the U. S. Department of Education for 19-18-1949, when there were 1780 colleges and universities with 2,408,200 students (18).
The lack of recognition given to chemistry 75 years ago was more of a handicap than the deficiency in either the number of colleges or the number of students. Fay states that before 1870 no college accepted science for admission ( 17 ) ,while Powers says: “AS late as 1875, the provision which had been made for chemistry in most of the colleges was quite meager” ( 2 5 ) . In an 1880 Bureau of Education Circular of Information, F. W. Clarke (president of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY in 1901) commented (15); “As a rule, the ordinary college course leaves the sciences for the junior and senior years, an arrangement which , , renders advanced electives in either chemistry or physics out of the question.” In 1878, Charles F. Chandler, speaking of the School of Arts at Columbia University, one of the best institutions, said ( 6 ) “The sophomore class attends one class a week in chemistry throughout the year. Instruction is given chiefly by lectures. General chemistry is also taught during the senior year three times a week, as an elective, by lectures. No laboratory work is reported.” I n a volume recording the Celebration of the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the AMERICANCHEMICALSOCIETYin 1901, the Census Committee summarized the replies received from more than 200 American colleges by saying, in comparing 1876 with 1901: “The accommodations for students and teachers have increased as 1 to 25” ( 1 ) . I n this same volume, a special report on organic chemistry by W. A . Noyes, Sr. (A.C.S. president in 1920), stated that there were more than one hundred students engaged in organic research in more than thirty institutions in 1901. I n 1876, on the other hand, only three institutions-Massachusetts
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Harrison Hale, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, -4rk.
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Institute of Technology and the Universities of Pennsylvania and Virginia-had any provision for laboratory work in organic chemistry. Even so, their facilities allowed for only a total of eleven students (94). The founding of the AMERICAN CHEXICAL SOCIETY preceded a period during which American institutions of higher learning grew most rapidly. That era witnessed a rapid rise in the importance of the land grant colleges, authorized in 1862. These colleges began receiving increasing support from federal and state funds. In these institutions the importance and possibilities of science were fully recognized. Quite fortunately, the battle against strongly entrenched classical viewpoint did not have to be fought. I n 1926, while discussing the status of chemical education in America, Samuel R. Powers concluded (96): “The major accomplishments of college education in chemistry have been: (1) t h e development of industrial and agricultural applications; (2) t h e development of research; and (3) the general diffusion of the method and attitude of mind of the scientist.” While much was accomplished in each of these three fields prior t o 1926, much more has been achieved since then. Industrial and agricultural applications for the products of the chemical industry have increased tremendously. Chemical production figures since the close of World War I1 tell the story. Research has been fostered as never before, with practical results observable everywhere. Chemistry and kindred sciences have fought off the paralyzing influence of tradition and superstition. Indeed, science has given mankind a rational point of view, the significance of which is obvious, though difficult to measure.
O n university campuses, chemistry has become a prominent part of the undergraduate curriculum
A C C R E D I T I N G C O L L E G E COURSES
For many years, in both the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, much work has been done by committees in setting up standards for the accrediting of college courses.. Many teachers have devoted a great deal of thought and effort to this timeconsuming work, which has been a most important factor in the advancement of chemical education. Both organizations have encouraged student interest and membership. Today, there are more than two hundred CHEMICAL SOCIETY (11). student affiliate groups of the AMERICAN Student chapters of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers are functioning in approximately one hundred colleges of engineering (3,f 8). Educational symposia were held long before there was a Section of Chemical Education, in the AMERICANCHEMICAL SOCIETY. Undoubtedly, when two or more early American teachers of chemistry met a t A.C.S. meetings, there were conferences on chemical education. Certainly, the value of educational institutions was early recognized. In his presidential address before the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY in 1892, G. C. Caldwell made a statement which held true for many years (6): “These higher institutions the fittest places and, indeed, almost the only of learning are places for the making of both investigators and investigations.” Conferences on chemical education were not limited to the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY.The World’s Congress of Chemists met in 1893 in connection with the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, immediately following the seventh meeting of the Society, which was the first held in the West. Speaking before this Congress on the subject, “How Chemistry Is Best Taught,” Charles F. Mabery of the Case School of Applied Science said ( b d ) , “The guiding star to successful teaching in chemistry is the personality and enthusiasm of the instructor.” As a result of the work of a committee of six and then of a committee of fifty, nearly all of whom were members of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY,the American Institute of Chemical Engineers was organized in Philadelphia, June 22, 1908. I n the constitution adopted that day, it was stated that one of the objects of the organization shall be “to cooperate with the educa-
Massachusetts Institute of Technology possesses one of the nation’s most outstanding schools of chemical engineering
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Students stroll past ivy-draped Kent Chemical Laboratory at the Uniuersity of Chicago
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INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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YOUNG MEN
TOSTUDY
CHEMISTRY
Are wanted by the Chemical Department of Lafayette College. Applications for ood men to fill responsible positions a r e constantly received. T h e present d e m a n z f o r chemists from this laboratory is largely in excess of t h e supply. Applicants f o r admission will be examined in English Grammar, Franklin’s Auto. biography, Paradise Lost (two books), English Prose Composition, Modern Geography. the General Outlines of History Elementary Natural Philosophy Arithmetic Metnc System Algebra (through Quadratics a s in Davies’ Bourdon) Plane ?3eonietry ( s k books of Daviks’ Legendre or a n equivalentj. Tuition SIIIa year “laboratory expenses. about $65 a y r . Board. room rent, fuel. and washink, about $25; a year Ceerfz cafes o f good inora chavartev will be repuired. On& fhose wiliitrg to wovh need apj&.’ Gradiuates receive the degree of B. S. T h e other college courses a r e as follows: CLASSICAL, GENERAL SCIENTIFIC, LATIN SCIENTIFIC, CIVIL ENGINEERING, hlINING AKD METALLURGY. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, and POST-GRADUATE. For further informahon address
S.
L. FISLER, A. M., Secretavy,
Easton, Pa.
Advertisement in 1893 issue of Journal of the American Chemical Society warned that “only those willing to work need apply” to Lafayette Chemical Department
Vol. 43, No. 5
Doubtless, there were other discussions on chemical education, for the teaching of organic chemistry was the subject of a symposium held by the Division of Organic Chemistry a t the 49th meeting in Cincinnati in April 1914. I n June 1921, Neil E. Gordon wrote to Charles L. Parsons, secretary of the Society, asking for an interview. I n this interview, Gordon urged that something be done so that more educational papers might be scheduled. Secretary Parsons approved the reformation of a Section of Chemical Education, starting with the S e w York meeting that fall. A three-session program was arranged. In the words of John N. Swan, the division’s decennial chairman ( $ 7 ) :
Dr. Edgar F. Smith presided a t all of the meetings for the three years of the life of the organization as a section. There is no doubt that his influence had much to do with the interest in this new organization. He was a tower of strength to chemical edutional institutions for the improvement of the education of the cation and a beloved companion of chemical educators. His interest in the history of chemistry and chemical education in men who are to enter this profession” (4). America and his wonderful knowledge in regard to those who were FYhile the Division of Chemical Education was not approved early workers in this field in our country gave him a prestige that by the Council of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETYuntil the a t once helped establish the section !\-hen he gave his sanction to Milwaukee meeting in September 1923, an interest in educathe organization and presided at the first meeting. His helpful interest and active participation in all of the meetings until the tion had been often expressed before then. From the minutes time of his death did much to generate the enthusiasm which has of the il.C.S. Council meeting in Baltimore, December 1908, we permeated the division throughout the decade. We all loved read: “It was voted that the Committee on the Education of him and were pleased to be a part of an organization which was Chemists be continued and requested to make arrangements for dear to him and in which he played a helpful part. I t is entirely appropriate that at this decena meeting of the Educational nial celebration we give mecia1 Section at the next two meethonor to the memory and- servOfficers of the Division of Chemical Education, ings of the Society, unless a ice of Dr. Edgar Fahs Smith, 1 923-1 95 1 the first chairman of the section division is organized in the and a prime mover in the demeantime.” Year Chairman Secretary velopment of the Division of So a t the 41st meeting in Chemical Education. Edgar F. Smith Neil E, Gordon 1923 Boston, the Educational SecNeil E. Gordon Wilhelm Segerblom 1924 The Section of the History of tion held sessions on December B. Smith Hopkins ti-.A. ii‘oyes, Sr. 1925 Chemistry, later the division, 26 and 28, 1909, under the B. Smith Hopkins iVilhelm Segerblom 1926 began a t the same time as the chairmanship of Lyman C. Ross A. Baker B. Smith Hopkins 1927- 928 Section of Chemical Education, Kewell. A special feature of William McPherson Ross A. Baker 1929 and in it, too, the outstanding the meeting was the discussion John Ross A. Baker S . Swan 1930- 93 1 figure was Edgar Fahs Smith. of problems relating to secondOwen L. Shinn Ross A. Baker 1932 Articles from both groups have ary school chemistry. -4bout Norris W. Rakestraw Lyman C. Newell 1933 long appeared in the J o u r n a l fifty were present. Norris W.Rakestraw Ross A. Baker 1934 of Chemical Education. So At the 43rd meeting in W. Rakestraw Norris Robert E. Swain 1935 naturally, there has always Minneapolis on December 29, Norris W.Rakestraw Harrison Hale 1936 been a feeling of close fellow1910. the section held a joint Norris W. Rakestraw Otto M. Smith 1937 ship and cooperation between session with the Divisions of B. Clifford Hendricks Norris W. Rakestraw 1938 the two groups. Industrial Chemists and Norris W. Rakestraw Martin V. McGill 1939 Chemical Engineers, Fertilizer Paul H. Fall Martin V. McGill 1940 DIVISION O F CHEMICAL Chemistry, and Agricultural Paul H . Fall Rufus D. Reed 1941 EDUCATION and Food Chemistry. The Paul H. Fall Frank E . Brown 1942 The conversion of the Secchairman, C. F. Burgess, spoke Arnold J. Currier Paul H. Fall 1943 tion of Chemical Education on “The Efficiency of the ColPaul H. Fall Laurence L. Quill 1944-1946 int,o a division was authorized lege Graduate in Chemical Paul H. Fall John C. Bailar, Jr. 1947 by the Council a t Milwaukee Industry.” Burgess’ talk was Paul H. Fall Edward L. Haenisch 1948 in September 1923. I n the fall followed by a thorough disDouglas G. Nicholson Paul H. Fall 1949 of the next year, the division russion. Again on that same Paul H. Fall Otis C. Dermer 1950 appeared on the program of the day, the Council voted “that Paul H. Fall 1951 James A. Campbell Tt,haca meeting, with Neil E. the Committee on the Section Gordon as chairman and Wilof Ch~micalEducation be conhelm Segerblom as secretary. The constitution and bylaws of tinued and be given charge of a session of this section for the winter the division \%ereapproved by the Council a t this meeting. At meeting of 1911.” the Washington meeting in ilpril 1924, it \vas announced that the As a result, a joint meeting with the Division of Physical and follom-ing program of the division was well under way ( 8 7 ) : Inorganic Chemistry was held in Washington, December 27, 1911, with -4. ii. Koyes as chairman. The meeting in New York 1. The correlation of high school and college chemistry in September 1912 coincided with the Eighth International Con2. The organization of associations of chemistry teachers in gress of Applied Chemistry. The Section of Chemical Education the various states held no meeting a t that time. In fact, the Section on Chemical 3. The establishment of a Journal of Chemical E d u c a t i o n Education ceased to exist until the 62nd meeting, conducted in New Work on the first of these objectives has been contimed for York in September 1921. This is recognized as the foundingmeetyears. There have been nunierous committee reports, many ing of what later became the Divlsion of Chemical Education.
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papers, and much discussion. When chemistry teachers within a state were organized, a Senate of Chemical Education was set up, with the chairman of the Committee on Chemical Education as ex-officio chairman of the Senate. Each state was to be represented by a high school teacher, a college or university teacher, and an industrial chemist. A meeting of the Senate was to be held at each meeting of the Society. This Senate was active for a few years, but was later given up because it was difficult to obtain the attendance of all three senators from each state. Subsequently, the work of the Senate was taken over by others within the division. The first issue of the Journal of Chemical Education appeared in January 1924, with Neil E. Gordon as editor. Meeting a real need, this journal has been regularly published ever since. Its importance and influence have grown steadily. Many articles of historical interest have been included. The first four numbers of Volume I were published b y the Section of Chemical EducaUndergraduates are busily at work in physical chemistry tion, but beginning with Number 5 the Division of Chemical laboratory at Northwestern University Education has taken responsibility for its publication. Users of the Education Index are impressed by the many references to the Journal of Chemical Education. The journal has been fortunate in its editors. Gordon served until December 1932 and was followed by Otto Reinmuth, who was in charge until August 1940. Reinmuth was succeeded by Norris W. Rakestraw, the present editor. I n more than a quarter of a century, there have been only three editors. The business affairs of the journal were handled at first by Erle M. Billings, who has given unusually varied and faithful service to the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY (9). These hiisiness matters were taken over by The Chemical Foundation, Inc., in October 1927, with Wm. W. Buffum directing. When this arrangement ceased, Harvey F. Mack became business manager in 1933 and is still in charge. For years, he assumed the financial risk and carried the burdens. Without his help, continued publication of a satisfactory journal would not have been possible. He has been both efficient and generous. Long before his connection with the Journal of Chemical Education, he had printed other journals of the Society (13). A.C.S. Secretary Alden H. Emery reported the action of the Board of Directors of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY on September 3, 1950 (14): “Adopted resolution of appreciation for many contributions of Erle M. Billings to A.C.S. and chemistry. Voted appreciation of Harvey Mack’s 50 years Graduate students conduct original research in 6-man of service to chemistry as printer of A.C.S. publications.” laboratory at University of Rochester As editors of chemical publications, teachers have done their full share. Outstanding contributions have been made by Charles F. Chandler, Edward Hart, Ira Remsen, W. A. Noyes, Sr.,Wilder D. Bancroft, Charles H. Herty, Arthur B. Lamb, Neil E. Gordon, Gerald Wendt, Otto Reinmuth, Norris W. Rakestraw, W. A. Noyes, Jr., Harold C. Urey, and Ralph L. Shriner. These last four are still active. Five of these editors have been CHENICALSOCIETY. I n some cases, presidents of the AMERICAN one man has served as editor of more than one journal. For example, W. A. Noyes, Sr., edited the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Chemical Abstracts, and Chemical Reviews. I n addition, he served as editor of Scientific Monographs from its beginning in 1919 until 1941. Benjamin Silliman, the elder, first professor of chemistry at Yale, was the founder in 1818 of the American Journal of Science and Art, the first truly scientific journal in the United States. This journal is still being published. DIVISIONAL MEMBERSHIP
Of the 8762 teachers who were members of the AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETYin 1949, only 658 (7.5970) were members of the Division of Chemical Education. This is a poor showing, contrasted with the over-all percentage. For the Society as a whole, 29% of all members belong to one or more divisions. I n Industry carries on job of chemical education, as here at 1949, membership in the Division of Chemical Education increased 138% over 1948. This is encouraging. But there is Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Co. 1037
I n unit operations laboratory, chemical engineering students study workings of double-eject evaporator still a long way to go, for the teacher who is not a membei of the division misses much (IO). Members of the division \I ere active in the promotion and direction of the Patricia Garvan Prize Essay Contests. Mr. and Mrs. Francis P. Garvin established these contests in September 1923 in memory of their daughter ( 2 3 ) . These competitions were held over a period of eight years, during which time half a million dollars were spent and many prizes awarded to students in high schools, normal schools, and colleges. They gave to the youth of the country an intelligent appreciation of the vital part played by chemistry in numerous phases of American life. Approved by the A.C.S. Board of Directors on June 8, 1950, an annual award in chemical education will be given to the outstanding chemistry teacher of the year. This award in recognition of the fundamental importance of the teaching of chemistry ~~-111 be financed by the nation’s scientific apparatus makers. From the beginning, the programs of the section and then of the division have been attractive and of value. Previewing the 113th A.C.S. meeting in 1948, Chemical and Engineering Xews commented (7): “The Division of Chemical Education . . . has gained a reputation for its diverse, extensive, and interesting programs.” Certainly, a glance a t the divisional programs from the very first confirms this statement. It is difficult to think of a phase of chemical education which has not been discussed. The best methods for correlating high school and college chemistry curric ula, so often considered from the earliest years, have naturally been followed by discussions on courses in general, analytical, physical, and organic chemistry, and how each of these can best be presented to different groups of students. Subjects for symposia, of whirh more than sixty have been held in 30 years, have covered a wide range of topics and have been undertaken with other divisions and many special groups. There were seven symposia in one meeting in .4tlantic City. Courses in chemistry for premedical students, for chemists and chemical engineers, and for the nonmajor students; lecture demonstrations; design and contruction of chemical laboratories; reaction kinetics, chemical thermodynamics; theories and tearh-
ing of acids and bases: standardized teats: chemical nomrnclature; technical journalism; professional and economic Status; training and opportunity for women in chemistry; relation of cotton t o chemistry; plastics, x h a t industry wants of its chcxmists; and many other subjects have been discussed. The influence of these symposia haq been widespread. They obviously have affected the content of textbooks and the method by which chemistry is presented. Many teachers have received n broader outlook, a clearer understanding of the importance of their work, and a freqh inspiration. Prominent industrialists who have accepted places on the program to tell what is expected of graduates in chemistry and chemical engineering have received from the resulting discussions a hetter understanding of the problems involved. More recently, symposia have dealt with such subjects as chemical literature, literature and patent surveys, petroleum information service, and technical library techniques. These symposia ivere the basis for this statement in Chemical and Engzneerzng .Yews ( 8 ) : “For several years, a group of members has organized for each national meeting a comprehensive symposium on some phase of the use of chemical literature. The sessions, held under the auspices of the Division of Chemical Education, have been 1%ell attended. I n late 1947, a petition was filed for the creation of a Division of Chemical Literature, and on September 5, 1948, the Council acted favorably.” The chairmen of the Division of Chemical Education have come from twenty-five institutions, including high schools, academies, teachers’ colleges, and state and nonstate colleges and universities. The Section and the Division of Chemical Education have been fortunate in the ability, enthusiasm, and devotion of its officers and members. Their influence is reflected in the program of the most recent meeting held in Chicago in September 1950. There, for four days of general session and symposia, problems of chemical education were presented and discussed. The symposia centered around the teaching of chemistry to nonmajor students, organic chemistry for chemistry majors, standardized tests, and educational activities of local sections (16). And so the Division of Chemical Education in its thirtieth year-well officered and with a journal of widening influence-& in a better position than ever to assist in solving the countlem problems which must be met and mastered if men and women are to be trained for the continued advance of chemistry in America. LITERATURE CITED
Am. Chem. Soc., J . Am. Chem. Sac., Supplement, p. 101 (1902). Am. Chemist, 5, 35-41 (August-September 1874). Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 1950 Year Book, p. 7. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., Trans. A m . I n s t . Chem. E n y m . , 1, 21 (1908). Caldwell, G. C., ,I.Am. Cheoa. Soc.. 14,347 (1892). Chandler, C. F., Bur. Education, Circ., pp. 65-66 (1880). Chem. E n g . S e w s , 26,1072 (1948). Ibid., p. 3121. Ibid., 28, 322 and cover (1050). Ibid., pp. 365, 569. Ibid., pp, 564-79. Ibid., pp. 2335-6. Ibid., pp. 3211-14. Ibid., p. 3616. Clarke, F. W., Bur. Education, Circ., pp. 11-12 (1880). Fall. P. H.. J . Chem. Education. 21 463 (1944). Fay; P. J.,Zbid., 8, 1550 (1931). Federal Security Agency, Dept. Education, Carc. 248 (1%50). Fortune, 68-76 (March 1960). Hale, Harrison, J . Chem. Education, 9, 742 (1932). Hale. Harrison, and Nelson. E. L., IND. ENG.CHEM.,25, 110-18 (1933). Mabery, C. F., J . Am. Chem. Soc., 15, 465 (1893). ENG.CHEM.,1, No. 18, 6 (1923). NEWSED.,IND. Noyes, W. A., J. A m . Chem. Soc., Supplement, p. 115 (1902). Powers, S. R., Ibid., 48, No. 8 4 237-54 (1926). Schooland Society, 71, 293 (May 1950). Swan, J. N., J. Chem. Education, 9, 671, 673 (1932).
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