Cold storage of food HERMANN C. LYTHGOE, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Boston, Mass.
Airplane View of Atlantic S f a f e s Warehouse and Cold Storage Corporafion 0 0 The laws of the different states pertaining to the cold storage of food are summarized. Comparative charts show the variation in storage holdings from 1917 to 1925 and from 1928 to date. The charts indicate holdings in the United States of various articles of food in cold storage warehouses. A short account is given of the value of cold storage in preventing the spread of certain parasitic diseases. Possible changes which may occur in cold storage are indicated. Cold storage is a necessary part of our civilization. In the winter we can have berries grown six months prior and green peas as good as when picked from the vine. People in the Midwest can obtain fish fillets frozen within a few hours after they were caught. Frozen meats can be shipped long distances to localities which are largely industrial. Cold storage operations will probably exercise a still greater influence over the production and cost to the ultimate consumer of perishable foods.
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HERE is nothing particularly new in the cold storage business, and it is not entirely confined to highly civilized people. Certain of the Eskimo tribes catch wild birds in the springtime, place the carcasses in caves of perpetual ice, and eat the carcasses in the winter when fresh meat is scarce. It is also a practice in some farming communities to slaughter a steer in winter, cut up the meat, allow it to freeze, and keep it frozen in a shed for consumption from time to time during the winter season. The commercial cold storage of food is a business operated for the purpose of making a profit and is a necessary part of our present economic system. The fundamental economic principle involved is the preservation of surplus perishable foods, produced in quantities too large for immediate consumption, to be released when there is a scarcity of the food so stored. Cold storage of food produces an equalization of wholesale prices and also stimulates production. If we did not demand eggs during November when the production of eggs is curt d e d , there would be no incentive to raise surplus eggs in the
spring months; but if there were no means to store the surplus eggs produced in the spring, it would for practical purposes be impossible to consume them before they spoiled. Laws are placed upon the books because a few people abuse privileges not covered by existing statutes, and our cold storage laws were enacted for that reason. Even today there is some violation of the law relating to the sale of cold storage eggs, possibly because during the early fall months such eggs can often successfully masquerade as fresh.
Legislative reports on cold storage The Massachusetts Cold Storage Law was enacted after a thorough study by a recess legislative committee appointed in 1911. The report of that committee (7) is a remarkably complete document upon the business of cold storage. The report deals in part with economic aspects, and discusses retail and wholesale prices over a period of years. It contains an appendix covering the cold storage legislation in existence a t that time in the United States and Canada. 29
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certainly does iiot seem to be any evideiice Lhtrt it is better., and there i s no convincing evidence that it is any worse, After three
ity are concerned.
Aiiot'lier legislative document ( 1 ) (:ontailis tnauy facts and considerable demagogy relating t o cold storage. KOlegislation of a national character resulted, and there is no tiatiori:il cold storage law today. I n discussing tjik question f i i 1926 I stated: "Such a l a ~ vis desirdile and almost necessary , . . The United States Food Lan-, h o m m r , should be aii-tended to contain a provision regarding sanitation, n711ich could then be applied t o cold storage as ne11 as t.o preparat,iori and iianciling" (6). The Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 contnin sanitation in the food industry, a i d , Ihei:eiore, the necessit for a federal cold storage law is not now so great; as it \vas twenty years ago. I
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Mesul t of' recent ques tionrraira
A letter \vas recently sent to each state requesting a copy of their cold storage law,if any, and comments thereon. fI'h(~ replies show that twenty-two statcs have no such law. Seventeen have a general cold storage law; one has a iaw by regu1:aLion made under a special act, of tlie legislature; one hi.N lam pertaining only t o the licensing of warehoiises: oiie Iias 21 law pertaining to reinovai of entrails from cold storage poiiltry as well as from other carcasses prior t o sale: ant3 $ix h a w cold storage l a m regulating only the d e of cold storage eggs. The cold storage lam of North Dnkotn \vas rcpcalctl iir 1910, but the plants are inspected under the sa1iit:ii.y irispeetioil lav. One reply st]ated that the oi~eaniei.y111e11 killed the attempts t o obtain a cold s t o i ~ i g ela\\., but saiiititry iiispectioiis are made by the st,ate Food ant1 tlrug deprrrtiiieiit. .Inotliei~ state replied optimistically that probably tile iicst l e will pass such a Iaiv, The foIlw~-ingis quotecl fro111 a lett,tx~. by A. M. G. Soule of the l l a i n e 1)ep:irtmt:rit of A\gi.icxiiltiiw:
themselves and also
many undesirable p ability of the produc findings on the g analyses we drew re& I am very embodied in Dep, us z l piece of past can be held for nine months, the ordinary poultry as it' gocn in the st,orag(awvai.ehous~in t l w ordinary c-harinrls of coxiinww \ d i l h
The writer has made two unsirccessful attempts to hsvci il hEaine Legislature enact such a lam. I t i s hased largely on the best features of your hlassachusetts laws but tlie packers dccided they did not vvarit the legislature t o pass it, and the legialature listened to them. I have many times seen tlie need such a law. iVc are ablo .Lo work only in a limited way with t h e authority giveu uiider our general food law in protecting food from being kept too long in cold storage and v-e also are a t a loss t o know how much is in storage without t'ha license provisions of cold &rage plants.
The bIassachu6etts report quotes (8) a publication by Pennington (6) descaiijing the widition o f cold storage food in 1908: Summing up the organoleptic properties, it may be said that for short time, possibly six weeks or even longer, there i s no perceptible change produced in a chicken by having it frozen, There R
Cold Storage Plant of the General Ice & Cold Storage Company, Inc., ut N e w Bedford, Mass.
January, 1943
INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY,
Courtesy, Commonwealth Ice and Cold Storage Company
Conveying Fish b y Pan Elevators from Panning Room to Sharp Freezers
practically no deterioration, practically no change in palatability or in composition as determined by the most delicate tests that we can apply in the laboratory. The Mas+achusetti; document (7) stated that in 1911 California, Delaware, Indiana, Kew Jersey, and New York had cold storage laws. The Congressional document ( 1 ) stated that in 1919 cold storage laws (exclusive of those pertaining to the sale of cold storage eggs) were in effect in Alabama (licensing of warehouses only), California, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, 1,onisiana (by rcgulation by the State Board of Health under act of legislature), Maryland, Massachusetts, Sebraska, Sew Hampshire, S e w Jersey, Kew York, Korth Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Utah, and Wisconsin. According to the recent questionnaire the following states have cold storage laws, exclusive of those pertaining only to the sale of cold storage eggs: California, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Many of the states having no cold storage law nevertheless inspect the warehouses and the food contained therein under the general sanitary and food lams.
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gether with the reason for granting it. I n general, articles of food removed from storage for the purpose of being placed on sale cannot be again returned t o storage, except that transfers in storage, not for the purpose of violating the law, are usually permitted. Some states require that in retail stores the customer must be informed that cold storage food is for sale, usually by the display of a placard or poster. The law of one state requires that the oustomers must be so notified without specifying the method of notification. The definitions of “articles of food” are somewhat variable. The favorite definition-for example, that of Massachusettsprovides that “articles of food” include fresh meat, fresh meat products (except in process of manufacture), fresh food fish, poultry, eggs, and butter. That of New Hampshire has a similar definition except that the word “game” is added. That of New Jersey, in addition to the above articles, includes edible oils and fats. That of Delaware includes all articles of food except fruit and fish. Those of Iowa and Nebraska include all foods. Thirty years ago there was considerable prejudice against cold storage food which, fortunately, is decreasing. A better quality of food now goes into storage and consequently is of good quality when sold. The comparatively new quickfreezing process has done much to remove public prejudice against cold storage foods. Foods frozen by the above process are usually sold to the consumer in a frozen condition; and by applying the formula that the proof of the pudding is in the eating, he has ascertained that cold storage food can be of excellent quality and also be wholesome.
EGGS 13PWLTRY HOLKGS
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MONlHLY AVERAOE
Summary of cold storage laws Where there is a general law, its provisions require that the cold storage warehouses be licensed. The fees vary in some states in accordance with the amount of business carried on b y the warehouses; in others there is a flat fee, irrespective of the amount of business, and in a few others, smaller fees for so-called locker plants. As a rule, articles of food entering cold storage must be dated on receipt. I n some hut not all of these states, the.arti(ale must be dated on removal from storage. Some states require the original dating on the package wherever the goods were stored. I n one state an affidavit is accepted in lieu of a date upon the package. Most states permit storage for a period of 12 months. One state permits 9-month storage; one state permits 10-month storage with provisions for extension of time: and some states permit extensions after 12 months of storage. I n three such states the annual report of the department must contain H. record of each extension, to-
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Quotations from some of the replies by the state law enforcement officers who answered the questionnaire may be of interest. Anton Roeger, Jr., of the Department of Agriculture of Pennsylvania, states : You may be interested in knowing that the enforcement of the provisions of this law is one of the least troublesome of our problems and that, in general, we receive a rather high degree of cooperation.
Walter W. Schofield, New Jersey State Department of Health, writes:
general cold storage law. The following definitions m e taken from the Illinois Refrigerated Locker Lav : “hcker” WI&8p15 the hdiVidUd NXtiOKlS ~ ~O f D. C%pZbCMJr~Qf not to exceed 25 cubic feet in the locker room Of 2 3 h k e r p h n t QF bPasleh locker plant. “Lockor Plant” ineans a loctLtion a? establishment in which space in individual lockers 3s rented to irrdividuds for the storage of food at below a tempera.. UP‘
&Ere of 45 degrees above aero Fahrenheit
and having a chill room, an;d sharp freca. ing facilities and faditiee for cutting, preparing, wrapping and packaging ancat:. and moat products, fruits and vegetables.
“Branch Locker Plant” 7netl.11~ any 1om tion ~r establiabment. in which space in: individud lockers is rented to intbividualt.: for the storage of food a i or below b tcmperatim of 45 degrees above zero Fahrenheit after preparation for storage at a central plant.
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The h w of A-eW Yurk st,ntc y,ertunb m g to refrigemted ivurelicrascs tend loclrer plaait,~ cant~aiaira the fol\owing tlefi1rition:
Lt is our opinion that the operators of these ~varehousesdo comply with the provisions of the law and that perishable foods are preserved at proper temperatures and other satisfactory condi.. &ionsin these vvarchouses. W e have found that there io a fine spirit of cooperation between these oficaals snd this department in other details concerned jvvith the enfoucernent, auch as the mark!llg O f CQntainerS,all(%the filing Of report$ With this dcpnrbeslt
In 1928 I \\-rote
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There are at present but few vioi%tionBof t h o cold storage law, The owners of the warehouses comply with t.he act practically 100 per cent. A depositor may occasionally vioiate the law ta,a minor extent, but this is w r y unusual. Wholcaele dealers in foods do not violate the law in dealing with their eustomers. A very few retail dealers violate in respect to tho sale of cold storage eggs without the required label, but tine great majority of such dealers sell cold storage eggs in cartons so labeled. Persons operating under the cold storage laws of M%assachusettsare appar.ently of the opinion that laws are not mnde to be enforced but, to be complied with. So-called ioaker freezers have been introduced iii recent. years. They are fairly common in tlbe prodicing arcas Dnt not so common in consuming areas, This type of freezer WRP not in existence when most of Ihe cold storage laws m r i : plwed upon the books. A few states have amended their l aw by making special provisions for such p h t s and reliaiquisjhing many of t,he requirements 80 necessary in public coXd storage vuarebouses. The purpose of this type ef storage is to enable the consumer t o freeze articles of food which lie hixxiself ha:: raised or purchased al, wvholesde and which he intends for CQIIsumption by himself and his lannilq. T‘hero is but one siich plant in Massachusetts. %ean Cassmann, Illinois Department, of Agriculture, writes as fo1lo~i-s: More than three hundred refrigerated locker plants are in opcsation in the State O f 1 l h Q i 5 , and We CQnfifdWOUF h W CLIld W&aLions covering tlieee an outstaniaiing wehievernewt inasmuch 8 s the locker rooms must be equipped with recording thermometers and because it is the first time in Illinois that health examinations have been required for food handlerfi. The Illiiiois law pertaining t o refrigerated ioclters is scparate aa~iddistinct from the cold storage law, and locker plants are distinctly relieved of complying with certain sections of t h e
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able to all citizens provided they are of value to such persons. The data from which the charts were made came fron) these reports. There is a seasonal variation in the production of food. The surplus in times of excessive production goes into storage fol release in times of scarcity. H. C. Marshall estimated that not more than 10 pel cent of our perkhable foods is placed in cold storage (2). Figure 1 gives the per cent of maximuni holdings based upon the five-year averageP from 1935 to 1939. The maximum and minimum holdings of the various items occur in the following months: ITBM
MAX.HOLDING Mxw. HOLDING
Poultry
Jan.
Pork Lamb
July, Aua. Nov.
Jan.
Aug. July
September Oct.
April
Beef Butter Cheese
March March
March
Figure 2 shows the monthly perceutages of maximum holdings of “shell” eggs and of fowl and “roasters”. When the surplus fowl goes on strike and deCourtesy, Commonwealth Ice and Cold Storage Company clines to produce eggs, her owner place6 Storage Room for Frozen Fish, Showing Swordfish in the Aisle her in cold storage, to the enhancement of his exchequer. But when the hen is producing surplus eggs, she ie too valuable for food. The next step following the development of the locker plant Figure 3 shows the maximum holdings per year of beef, would naturally be a cold Storage warehouse in the home. It pork, lamb, butter, cheese, and poultry in the United States is here. An interesting account of this innovation was given from 1917 to 1925. I n 1921 there was a tremendous increase recently by Sparkes (9). in the storage of lamb due to the importation of New Zealand lamb, much of which was stored on the East Coast. The Statistics first few shipments were sold a t retail but the balance eventually went to England where i t belonged. An inquiry made Many of the state laws, including that of Massachusetts, of the manager of one of the large packing houses resulted in a require a report to the enforcing department of the amounts statement that the United States sheep growers informed the of food held in storage. These figures were of news value packers that if they wished New Zealand to raise their sheep, fifteen years ago, and may again be useful for that purpose. the United States sheep raisers might as well quit. At that time the Massachusetts newspapers would ask for the From 1918 to 1924 beef as well as lamb showed a proporquantity of food in cold storage and would play up the figures tional drop except for the enormous increase in lamb due to as being enormous when, in fact, they were almost insignifiimportation from New Zealand. The monthly holdings of cant. This attitude on the part of the press was circumvented lamb are plotted on Figure 3 from January, 1920, to July, by giving the per capita holdings as well as the total holdings. 1921. There are two maximum figures for 1920, the normal Statements t o the effect that there was in cold storage for figure in January as well as the excessive figure due to New each person, two thirds of an egg, seven hundredths ounce of Zealand lamb. lamb, one quarter pound of pork, etc., invariably carried as I n 1920 the Massachusetts Department of Public Health much prominence in the paper as did the actual figures, which mere the above figures multiplied by four million. granted extensions of storage time for 216,688 pounds of beef and 5,502,152 pounds of pork. I n 1921 similar extensions I n the early days of the last war the Massachusetts Food were granted upon 937,433 pounds of pork. Regarding the Administrator made inquiries of the department relative to extensions in 1921, the Annual Report states: “This pork the Massachusetts reports of holdings in cold storage; but was practically all export pork, being cuts not sold in this the Administrator required and obtained additional and more country, and held in Massachusetts pending foreign shipment voluminous reports of food holdings than the Department of Health possessed a t that time. The United States Food Adwhich was delayed by certain import embargoes imposed by ministration then collected statistics as to holdings of food, the countries to which the material was to be shipped.” not only in cold storage warehouses, but elsewhere. At the Comparing these extension figures with those of 1940 (beef extensions 19,288 pounds and pork extensions 62,084 pounds), close of the war the continuation of this statistical work was taken over by the United States Department of Agriculture it is evident that the holdings of beef and pork, a t least in and is now maintained by the Agricultural Marketing AdminMassachusetts cold storage warehouses during 1920 and 1921, istration of that department. were somewhat excessive. Each month valuable statistical information is compiled From 1918 to 1921 butter and poultry showed the same propertaining to frozen fruits and vegetables, dairy and poultry portional decrease in holdings as did beef and lamb, but after products, frozen and cured meats. These reports are availthat interval the importation of Danish butter and Czecho-
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Engine Roam in the Piani. o f the Gemmenwealth Ice and Cold Staxuge Cornnany
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ing quarantining of imported live rabbits before they are liberated. TRICHINOSIS. This parasitic infection can also be controlled by cold storage. Freezing for a sufficient time will kill the trichinae %hich are so prevalent in pork. KO system of inspection can guarantee pork to be free from this parasite; consequently one must always assume that pork is diseased. The remedy is to cook it to or beyond the point where the red color is entirely destroyed. Certain races prefer to eat undercooked pork, and trichinosis in humans is usually confined to these people. The disease is probably more prevalent in humans than the records show, because of the liability of an incorrect diagnosis. The United States Bureau of Animal Industry has regulations pertaining to the preparation of meat products intended t o be eaten without being cooked. Freezing is included among them. In 1924 the Massachusetts Department of Public Health adopted certain regulations based upon the federal regulations, one of which reads as follows:
months the depositor faces a loss unless the food can be held over until the next season. This is the reason for the extension provision in the law. Unforeseen conditions have a bearing upon such requests. For example, a few winters ago there was an extraordinary off-season run of mackerel a t the time when storage mackerel was due to be removed for retail sale. Extensions of time in cold storage in Massachusetts are granted for an average period of three to four months. I n 1941, exclusive of eggs in the shell, 240,077,270 pounds of food were placed in cold storage, and during that year extensions were granted upon 732,025 pounds, representing 3.04 per cent of the food subject to such extension. Requests are never made for extension of storage time for shell eggs.
Public health aspects Formerly it was embarrassing to a health department official enforcing a cold storage law to be asked what value, if any, cold storage was to the public health. There is a satisfactory answer now-namely, the destruction of parasitic infections in meat which cannot be detected by ordinary inspection. TCLAREMIA. Massachusetts is unusually free from tularemia, also known as deer fly fever. To prevent its introduction, the Massachusetts Department of Public Health in 1929, under the provisions of a statute passed that year, adopted a regulation requiring that carcasses of rabbits shipped from other states into Massachusetts must have been kept in cold storage at a temperature of less than 30" F. for a period of not less than 30 days. This regulation is rigidly complied with. The wild rabbits in Massachusetts are free from the disease, and the Department of Conservation has a regulation requir-
If refrigeration is employed, the pork shall have been subjected to refrigeration not less than twenty days at a temperature not higher than 5' Fahrenheit, rovided, however, that pork does not exceed one hundred poun$;: weight per package. If in barrels or tierces, the pork shall have been subjected to refrigeration not less than thirty days at a temperature not higher than 5' Fahrenheit.
At the time these proposed regulations were being considered for presentation to the Department, the late Francis X. Mahoney, then Commissioner of Health of the City of Boston, stated in substance: "If it is true that freezing will kill trichinae, I believe that there should be a law on the books requiring all pork to be frozen prior to being placed on sale."
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Figure 5. Cold Storage of Butter, Cheese, and Eggs
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Other departments are giving serious attention to this subject as shown b y a letter received from Walter W. Schofield, New Jersey Department of Public Health, stating in part: I would like to direct your attention to additional regulations which this Department has under consideration at this time concerning the certification of the refrigeration of pork by operators of cold storage warehouses. This matter was brought to our attention by the Department of Health of New York City, which Department requested the adoption by this De artment of regulations governing the certification of pork storefin warehouses of New Jersey, but which is to be marketed in New York City. The holdin of pork at low temperatures for the time specified in the regufations would destroy trichinae and the certification of this storage, plus the marking of containers of such products with a statement of the temperature and time of stora e, would enable buyers to purchase pork which had been propefiy refrigerated for the destruction of trichinae. It is my opinion that this proposal has considerable merit. Of course, it may take a considerable period of time to inform the public a t large of this additional safeguard in this particular matter.
The regulations were adopted in July, 1942, one of which is as follows: The temperatures and periods of time necessary for the destruction of trichinae shall be based upon the size of the pieces or packages of pork. Pork in group 1shall consist of pieces not exceeding six inches in depth, or stored as solidly frozen blocks not exceeding six inches in thickness. Pork in group 2 shall consist of pieces or layers or contents of barrels or containers, the thickness of which exceeds six inches, but is not in excess of twenty-seven inches. Pork in group 1 and group 2 to be refrigerated for the destruction of trichinae shall be subjected to a temperature of 5" F., or minus 10" F. or minus 20' F. for not less than the corresponding number of successive days, as indicated in the following table: Temperature 5'
-- 20 10
F.
Group 1 20 days 10 6
Group 2 30 day8 20 12
The regulations also provide for a certification t o be attached to each lot so frozen The state of New York now has in effect a regulation some-
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what similar to that of New Jersey. If the New Jersey and the New York regulations remain in effect, an interesting experiment is underway, and its public health significance as determined by epidemiological studies will be of value, both to public health authorities as well as to the trade. The success of this experiment, however, must depend upon the education of those persons who prefer to eat rare rather than welldone pork.
Cold storage as a war measure During the last war the United States fed many millions of people in England, Belgium, and France. During the present war we are feeding millions in England and Russia. During the last war there was considerable expansion of the cold storage business. Warehouses which had been closed were reopened. In Massachusetts several new warehouses were built, mostly for the freezing of fish t o be shipped abroad and to be shipped west to conserve meat. Increased storage space was necessary for temporary storage of meat to be shipped abroad. The increased production of fish, pork, and beef required increased storage space. The war ended in November, 1918, and after a few years we had, at least in Massachusetts, a surplus of cold storage warehouses. Many of them have been torn down, sold at auction, or are not now in operation. Will history repeat itself? The Agricultural Marketing Service of the United States Department of Agriculture is becoming interested in warehouse space. The following is quoted from a report of that service issued September 20, 1941: The gross space in all cold storage warehouses and meat packing plants in mid-June of this year totaled 764,646,000 cubic feet according to a preliminary report issued today by the United States Department of A riculture. The report is based on a survey of refrigerated ware%ousesand meat packing establishments made by the De artment's Marketing Service at the request of the TransportationBivision of the National Defense Advisory Commission. The refri erated warehouse space existin this year inticates that over the 21-year periofi from 1921 to 1941 a net expansion of 221 million gross cubic feet has occurred in all types of lants. The trend has been generally upward &ring this entire period, the major exceptions being the years 1933 and 1935 when some abandonment of obsolete warehouse space occurred. Since the biennial survey of 1939 there has been a net increase of all types of plants totaling 18.2 million cubic feet. The monthly reports of that service now carry the percentage of cold storage space occupied in public freezers. Probably there will soon be a demand for cold storage space in excess of that now available, and one can but wonder if capital will be willing to take another chance, even though this may be essential for the conduct of the war.
Variation in composition due to cold storage
Courtesp, Commonwealth Iae and Cold Storage Company
Storage for Frozen Fish, Showing a Section of Bins Usedfor Small Lofs
There are certain possible changes which may occur in food held in cold storage. First comes evaporation, because the atmosphere is practically dry due to the freezing of any moisture in the air. Consequently frozen foods, unless properly protected, are liable to lose moisture. If desiccated to any great extent, the sale value is lessened. Certain enzymes do not lose their activity at freezing temperatures, and enzyme action is to some extent responsible for changes in cold
storage. Lipase a c t ~ i s~respomible ~ t ~ for increased rancidity e butter. Butter i d e c t e d with mold so sli is not visibly apparent at the time of stoa age will sometime5 exhibit considerable mold when removed. Eggs in the shell ing temperature, became if frozen, ill coagulate. Storage eggs are subject to the same 0 a lesser deger: than those stored a t a higher The changes a:e loss d ni~istuie,increase in bes of the fat,, increase in an-nmonia in the yolks,
changing, but in many respects history is un~ ~ ~ ~repeating ~ n aitself. ~ e Feuhgton’s ~ y statements of 1908 may again be the rule and not the exception. 8%present the rendering weliie of bad meat is c ~ n s ~ ~ e ~Lit~eratrmre , ~ ~ y ei t ed less theen its value as l a w material. for the ~ a n u ~ aof~ mu~ ~ r e(1) Rouse of Representatives, 66th Corrgu., 1 s t Session, Cold Storage Legislation, Hearing before comrn, on b g r . , 1 9 1 9 ~ e. The Massachusetts inspecto (2) Ibid., p p ~46, 47, 49, 51. more bad beef and (3) Ibid., p,387. 888 than durmg many pP (4) Lythgoe, H. C., Atti. C Q ~ ~ infern. P . ehim., X CongT,, 4, 610--18 fillding and confiscating muoh had (1938). in one instance they made a co&eation in a saueage %&my ( 5 ) Lytligoe, H. C., Ice and Refriiiye~at(on,91, No, 4 (1926). (6) Psnnicyton, M. E., U. 8 . Dept. Agr., Bur. Chsrn. Ruli. 115 (1908). operating under federal inspection. (7) Rept. of Cornm. t o Inveetig~teSubject of Cold Storage of Food, The odd storage groeess k not sespgnfiiblefor these COX&Maes. Houas Do,um,?a% 1133 (1912). tiom, and it is hardly to be expected that warehouse em(8) Bbid., gg. 67-8. ( 9 ) 5paskea, Royden, SIZt, E3sning R&, Silly I N , 1942. ployees will investigate the conditfion of each barrel of meat
