cooperative education
Edited by GEOFFREY DAVIES ALANL. MCCLELLAND
Cooperative Education at the University of Salford Leslie Davies Department of Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, University of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, United Kingdom Co-operative education in the United Kingdom ( I ) began in 1840 a t the University of Glasgow and in 1880 (2) a t the Royal Technical College, Glasgow (now the University of Strathclyde), hut apart from other attempts a t Sunderland Technical College (1903) and a t what is now the City University (19051, all the growth of the system has occurred since the 1950's. The British name for co-operative education is "sandwich courses," to indicate the interpolation of academic studies and paid work experience periods, or "integrated (sandwich) courses," to indicate the attempt closely to relate the studies and the work. The development of such courses began, as it has elsewhere, with the opinion that existing undergraduate courses were inadequate for the proper education and training of engineers and applied scientists. A more vocationally-oriented degree-level education was therefore sought. Her Majesty's Government decided in February 1956 on a major expansion of the country's largest technical colleges and of sandwich courses, stating its conclusion that "for the highest technological qualifications sandwich courses will become more and more appropriate" ( 3 ) . The National
Salford Intearated Sandwich Courses T h e University of Salford (then the Royal College of Advanced Technology, Salford) wasa pioneer of the sandwich system, and the first group of students was enrolled for wtiat is now the Honours BSc degree in Applied Chemistry in 1957. The University currentlyhas sandwich courses in its Departments of Aeronautical and Mechanical Engineering, Applied Acoustics, Biochemistry, Biology, Chemical Engineering, Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mathematics, Modern Languages, Pure and Applied Physics, and Sociological and Anthropological Sciences. All the courses are four years long (including a whole academic year or two or three half-years of industrial training) with the exception of two five-year "enhanced courses" for Diplomas in Engineering ( 6 ) .
and ct ursei had 1,) In* ludc.or le3t haung .( narim:d c.t~rr~n,y" \ t dr - 8 1 inte~rdted . ~ d t ~ s ~ rtra11111ig i a I ~ 1x1 (,rder r u ,tuIrv the Council's annroval T h e sandwich course concept, initially for Diploma of Technology awards of the NCTA, was developed rapidly in nine of the UK's colleges of advanced technology, which have since become universities, and a t the National College of Food Technology, now part of the University of Reading.There are currently over 180 Honours first degree sandwich courses operating in those ten institutions (4). In addition, the aporoach has been a d o ~ t e dhv many of the courses operating in
Engineering Research council studentships, including 23 CASE awards for collaboration with industry, and other research is supported by grants from industry and government departments which presently total about f-140,000. The most recent SERC grant (f110,OOO)is for studies of chemical vapor deposition of thin films for microprocessor systems in collaboration with the University's Department of Electrical Engineering, and other studies concern materials ranging from prostaglandins to cements and concretes. Achievements in research have been recognized in the last two years alone by the award to staff members of the Theophilus Redwood Medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry (to Professor L. S. Bark, for his contributions to analytical chemistry), the Corday-Morgan Medal of that Society (to Dr. S. M. Roberts, for the most distinguished experimental contribution by a candidate under the age of 371, the Mettler Gold Medal of the North American Thermal Methods Group (to Dr. D. Dollimore, for his work in thermal analysis) and the Marin Drinov Medal of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (to Professor W. J. OrvilleThomas for his research in molecular structure). This wide varietv.of . orofessional interest is reflected in various suhiects and options of the Department's sandwich courses, which are for Honours BSc A .~.o l i e dChemistrv and Honours BSc ('htmi.trs and Hu,ints, 3t111111.~. 'I'llr .\uulicd Chrm~itrvccurae i i ~II' thr '.thin .s:iliilu~~~.l~" type, in which the first and fourth years each include 30 weeks of academic study, while the second and third years each consist of 20 weeks' academic study and 20 weeksindustrial training. The clear aim of the course is to produce professional chemists, and the main topic is therefore naturally chemistry. In the first three years a general review of inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry is given, while in the fourth year each
MI,.
for ~ a t i o n a Academic l Awards. Official bodies such as the Business and Technician Education Councils are encouraging colleges increasingly to organize their suh-degree courses on sandwich lines. At the honours degree level there was an increase from about 33,000 in 1973to ahout 60,000 in 1981 in the number of students taking sandwich courses (4). In addition, by 1981, there were about 25,000 students taking sandwich courses for Higher National Diplomas ( 5 ) ,which may he regarded as equivalent to pass degrees. Sandwich programs for higher degrees are available on a limited scale, mainly thruugh .I special +tern uil'es~.hin: C'ump:mies !r Ihith a111 ht r v t i r n t t,, . n ~ t rTIN. . henerir. ,,r ,dnJs.ich mlr-c.. i r e llnrnow widely recognized, hut this very success is adding to problems of industrial work placement which have developed over the last year or so, due to the economic recession.
'
As in previous papers in This Journal, the designation "Industry" covers all formsof employment: in private industry and commerce, local and national government, nationalized industries, hospitals, research institutes, etc.
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Journal of Chemical Education
Chemistry Integrated Courses The Deoartment of Chemistrv and A ~ o l i e dChemistrv is
student chooses one option from the list of topics shown in Table 1. In addition, the students take courses in pure mathematics (mainly calculus), computing (Basic and Fortran) and applications of computing to chemistry, statistics, physics, English, process chemistry, chemical engineering, management and administration, microeconomics and laboratorv instrumentation he chemistry option includes an individual research project and dissertation, which item carries the largest of the set of marks on which the degree award is based (Table 2). The great - maioritv . . of the students on the course do not have permanent employers, and it is the responsibility of the present writer to find each of them two contrasting work periods, during which they are usually paid their employers' normal salary rates for their age and qualifications. Students are financially supported a t the University in the usual UK way, by grants from the education authorities in their home neighborhoods, the level of grant depending on family circumstances. As an indication of the support given to the
"Judgement based upon experience must supplement theory.") Students who enter the Department with a high school qualification in French or German may take an oral language course and then undertake industrial training in corresoondine countries of the EEC. so as to i m ~ r o v etheir secbnd-language ability and their 'career prospects within the Community and elsewhere. The Department has student exchange agreements with the Ecole Nationale Superieure de Chimie Industrielle. Lvons, and the Universities of AixMarseille and ~ l e r m o n Ferrand, i and also places students directly with Belgian, French, and German employers. Although the assessment of the students during industrial training does not contribute numerically to the level of degree awarded, each candidate is visited (and assessed) twice in each training period. No student may proceed with the course if unsatisfactory reports are received on his or her industrial training, and the visit reports are also important in examiners' meetings when candidates are near borderlines between degree classifications. The success of the Applied Chemistry course encouraged the Department to launch a second sandwich program, for Honours BSc Chemistrv and Business Studies2 in 1973. This is an interdisciplinary & m e , taught jointly by the Departments of Business and Administration and Chemistrv and Applied Chemistry. It prepares candidates for careers in management. administration. oreanization and methods work. ninrkrtmg .ind i o un 111 the pruccss industries. and hence ha, a (ruite diiicrrnt ~ h i l t , i w h \i r m that $af the A ~ ~ i , l i C'hemtd is&y course. he-~usiness a n d Administration bepartment contribute 40% of the academic studv time. covering suhiects " such as quantitative business methids, finance, accounting, demand economics and consumer behavior, oreanizational hehavw .and intlt13trial rtl:nltmc, mmaywial econumics and nolicv. I~u.~m. ~ ~ c q. Gnierd srurlres in chtmistrv ~slantt,drounrd an appreciation of the subject appropriate to careers such as those named above) take another 40% of the time. The remaining 20% is given to integrative studies. These include the structure and development of the chemical processing industries, economics, energy, and resources in chemical processing, environmental constraints, health and safety, com~~
2 in jiklgium. The widespread geographical locations and the range of employers and types of work arise partly from the simple need to obtain training places, but also reflect the Denartment's nolicv its students to show en. " of encouraeine " terprise and initiative. The students are prepared for the industrial training hv informal advice and euidance from their tutors and also jby written "Guide for fftudents" (7). T h e Department's philosophy of industrial training may be summarized by a sentence from that brochure: "This Guide is dedicated to helping students to maximize the useful experience of their industrial training periods, so as to develop their professional judgement to best advantage, while also doing a very good job for their employers." (Part of this phrase, incidentally, owes a debt of gratitude to aremark made by Professor Herman Schneider of Cincinnati long ago:
a
Table 1. Final Year Options in the SalfordHonours 6Sc Course In Applied Chemistry Analytical Chemistry Amlied inaroanic Chemistrv
Environmental Chemistry industrial Kinetics
~
~~
~
Nor.? added in proof: Recrwtment has been suspenoed due to national un vers ty financa economics: lne mauss#aimanagement as-
Polymer and Colloid Chemistry
pects of the Applied Chemistry have been increased as partial compensation.
Table 2. System of Examinatlons for the Honours BSc Degree In Applied Chemistry Maximum Mark Year 1 inorganic chemistry Organic chemistry Physical chemistry
theorya practicalb Theorys practicalb theory' practical'
Pure mathematics English
Year 3 inorganic chemistry Organic chemistry Physical chemistry Chemical engineering Practical chemistryr
the~ry~,"~ theory the0ry8,Gd theory
(inorganic/organic/physicai
equal weighting)
Maximum Mark
Year 2 inorganic chemistry
theoryB
100 100 100 100 100
Organic chemistry
theorya
Physical chemistry
100 100 100
practical theoryd practical
Computing and statistics
100
practicalb
Physics Year 4 Applied chemistry option Laboratory instrumentation
100
100
100 100 100 100
100
100
100 100 100 100
Chemical engineering Research project and dissertatians~" Management, admin., and microeconomics"d
l h e ~ r y ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 100 practical b,"d 50 t h e ~ r y ~ . ~ ~ 75 practical " G d 50 the~ry~.~,* 75 200 50
AIi theory papers are of three hours duration.
continuous assessment a M half by half day1Wxhole day tests. =The level of degree awarded depends on the overall performance in mese mird and founh year subjects. 6 Assessed by external examinerr. a The practical marks are allocated half by
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parative methodology of physical and social sciences, a "current awareness" survey of the chemical industry, and visits to local chemical plants. These activities link the two main narts of the course and are taneht - bv.chemistrv staff who also have qualifications and experience in management. Throughout the course, the students (as individuals and groups) examine the structure and performance of process industrv companies in detail so as to relate their financial. adminis&ative, and technological aspects closely together, and take part in a number of detailed business eames under the guidance of visiting professors from industry. The students soend the whole of the third vear in appropriate indnstrial training (which, as with ~ p p l i e dChemistry, may be in European Economic Community countries other than the United Kingdom). During the industrial training, each student identifies a topic within his employer's oraanization which becomes the subject of the final iea; project and dissertation, and there is close collaboration between university and 'industry in supervising the assignments which result.
students doing different work in different places. Numerical assessment does exist, for example, in some departments of the Universities of Bradford, Longhhorough, and Surrey, but the national advisory and consultative body, the Universities Committee on Integrated Sandwich Courses, was able to produce a detailed hut only qualitative assessment model (8, Q) -,. Salford has detailed model criteria for the performance, not just of its students, hut of its staff in all aspects of industrial training (10). The University naturally recognizes its total dependence upon the goodwill and co-operatiou of employers in making industrial training possible, and consequently its philosophy is "to secure their maximum help by maximizing the performance of its academic departments . . . .to make the extramural periods as effective a; possible in respect of education and training for the stndents, and of efficient work for
can be reduced if there is failure to meet the agreed stany dards.
Organization of Industrial Trainlng
Research and Opinions on UK Sandwich Courses
The responsibility for arranging relevant indnstrial training is given to members of academic staff within teaching departments in the great majority of UK universities, polytechnics, and colleges, and this is very much the case a t Salford. Since there is also a tradition of small group teaching, the tutor meets the students frequently and hence knows each of them auite well when the time comes for nomination to employer8. The tutor obtains a list of probable vacancies for several months ahead and discusses these informally with groups of students and individuals. Students identify their interest(s) and, providing the tutor is in agreement, the students can then go forward for industrial interview. This mechanism is regarded as the best available for ensurine that each student enters appropriate industrial training wich enthusiast~~ and ronitnitment 111an!. c.isr, tutt,rs art it,~lousd their direct link; uith ~nipk,yerrjpdrticulnrly now t h ~ et w i n ilnd~ngindu>tri31 118amirrrwsslon i: causing mure il~ii~(.uIty training, t~ndhen,,( they rtsld tht. ioea c i a , w t r n I plsccnicnt or r o . , d ~ n t ~ t i unit t ~ g wi111it1 the univtr41y. The m l \ Rritish uniwr;itg to run unlg w h v i c h cuursec ~ H r u n t does l ~ haw wch a unit. and it rimains I U be -een \r htthcr the iiidi\,id~~t~l tutor concept will remain adequate if the sandwich system continues to grow or placements become more difficult. The content of industrial training periods is fairly standardized in the earlier years of UK engineering courses under the influence of the Council of Engineering Institutions and the Engineering Industry Training Board, and correspondingly the students are largely "company-based"-i.e., each has one employer for the duration of the course. In other subjects, however, there are no such influences a t work and the industries have no apprenticeship tradition in the way the engineers have. ~ e n c e the ; students are very largely "niversity-based," and the rare formalized training schemes are devised by individual employers. Instead, the students have a normal role as an employee, doing a real job. Detailedjob specifications for sandwich students are rarely available in advance, in the present writer's experience. It is therefore not po>siblr t o prepare ihe :reat mnjmitv oistndents fur ~tldustrial placements in drrail, hut ernpldyers narurallg r.~rel!.t z pect this under the circumstances.
It is perhaps fair to say that research effort to assess values, attitudes, and achievements in the courses has been patchy to date. Early work by Cotgrove, Musgrove, Smithen, and others (see e.g. the references in the text by Smithers (I)) has perhaps not been followed up as well as it might have been, even though not all the conclusions reached were in favor of sandwich courses. Mnsgrove (11) formed the view that employers had "doubts" about the courses, in spite of finding that sandwich eraduates were considered superior in 15 out of 18 attributeLfor up to three years after graduation, and in 10 of them for at least seven vears. Smithers investieated students' attitudes, and found -that their experience of industrial trainine was inferior to their exuectation of it, a perhaus not uncommon occurrence in many aspects of life. Smithers did, however, finally conclude that "It would he wrong to attach too much importance to one group of empirical studies, which a r e . . . . somewhat dated now." (The work was carried out in the late 1960's.) He felt that claims for sandwich courses had been overstated, hut that thev had advantages. In particular. he was concerned that close integration of academic studies and industrial work was not taking place. The attitudes of employers and students having been investieated. those of academics were explored bv the uresent writ& at ~ a l f o r in d 1975 (12). One hundred and tweity-four collearues, who taught substantial numbers of sandwich and non-sandwich students in 12 departments, replied to a brief questionnaire of "open answer" type. The most striking thing about the replies was the frequency of comments about the uositive influence of the industrial training periods on the students' attitudes and capabilities in suhs&ent academic studies. The extramural experience was clearly seen as a valuable ingredient of academic studies, and the sandwich students were regarded as more alert, open-minded, mature, questioning, and involved. Detailed surveys of the attitudes of academics, employers, and students are now being carried out by the Association for Sandwich Education and Training, the Council for National Academic Awards. and the National Union of Students. at the request of the UK Department of Education and Science. The report should he available in late 1983. A bibliography (13) of publications is available from the University of Surrey.
Assessment of lndustrlal Training Performance
Doubtless every UK university and college operating sandwich courses has urocedures for assessine students durinr indnstrial training, bbt probably few of these make a direct numerical contribution to the level of degree awarded to a candidate. The system common at Salford has been referred to earlier. Numerical gradings have been tried there and were readily accepted by employers, but academics took the view that it is impossible (or anyway unfair) to assess different 582
Journal of Chemical Education
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Postgraduate Sandwlch Courses
After initial studies in 1975, Professor A. W. J. Chisholm of Salford and senior executives of the General Electric Company worked out the details of a "Teaching Company," aimed at "the education and training of an elite breed of manufacturing engineer and production manager." Such joint schemes, between manufacturing companies and universities
(or polytechnics) are now widespread. The basic costs are provided by the UK Science and Engineering Research Council and the Department of Industry, and a company recruits able young engineers (preferably after a few years' postgraduate experience) for two year periods, during which they carry out work essential to the employer and coincidentally prepare a Master's thesis. Each candidate has an industrial as well as an academic supervisor and the work is carried out predominantly in industry. As far as possible, the theses are to he so written as to he valuable to industry generally, and not only to the individual employer.
Salford University Industrial Centre Lid.
Some of the Teaching Company activities involve the University's Industrial Centre. In 1969, the UK Government gave pump-priming grants to seven universities to set up Centres "to provide a practical interface between the resources and knowledge of universities and the responsibilities and needs of industry." After three years, the Centres bad to become self-financing, and most have not survived. The Salford Centre, however, is well established with 22 engineers and 5 support staff, and a turnover of E625,OOO in 1981182. Most of the income comes from research, consultancy, design, and the sale of prototype machinery by the Centre, but the Centre also acts as liaison between outside enquirers and the various departments of the university. The university was recently recognized by the UK Department of Industry as one of the most highly efficient in technology transfer to industry, and
the Centre was earlier identified hy the US Air Force as one of the most efficient of its kind in Europe. Salford-An
Amlied Universitv
and infoimative survey of some of its work. o n behalf of the Department of Chemistry and Applied Chemistry, the writer seeks mutually-beneficial co-operation with other institutions. Literature Cited (11 Smithen. A. G.. "Sandwich Cnuries: an LntegraLad EducatinnY, NFEK Publishing Company, Windmr, UK. 1976 llR2referencerl. (21 Venables. Sir Peter, "Sandwich 4,urses." Max Parrish. London. UK. 1919. (31 Ministry of Education White Paper. "Technlcnl Education." Command 9703, Her Majesty's Statmnery O f f ~ eLondon. , UK. 1956. (4) Association for Sandwich Education and Traininz, 1983 Journal lenquiriesro Mr. T. Waite. Mmpower Services Cummisrion, Sandwich Course Reaesrch Unit, Brunel University, llrhridge UR8 ?PH. UK). car MSC sandw8eh Courre Research Umt, "Placement of Polytechn~eand Univers~ty Sandwich Course Students 1981" lengolrirr as reference 1411. (6) llnwenity dSa1fUrd llnderyradrmlr Pioxpectus 198%8,7 lavaileblefrom the University, Snlfcxd M 5 I W T . UK). (71 Univelsity of Sslford Department of Chemistry m d Applied Chemistry, "Industrial l'raming Periods of the Honours BSc Course in Applied Chemhslry" !pubii?hed annusliyl. (8) Marshall. V. C., Natamal Conference on Degree Ssndwich Courses, Universilles Committeeon Integrated Sandwich Courser/ilniuer-ity d R n f h . 1971. (9) O n k e , M. 5.. Proreedings affhe Second World Conference on Cu-operatwe Education. Northeastern University. Boston, 1981, paper E14. 110) Davies. 1.. Reference 191. paper E6. 111) Musgruve. F.. DurhamResearch Review. No2X. 1972. 112) Dsvies. L.,Natmnsl Conference. 1975 (see reference 18)). 113) Llniverity of Surrey, "Sandwich Courses, an Annotated Bibliwraphy..) (Two edhtions: publicxtinns up to 1971, andfrom 1972 t o 19RO): 204 references in the lslfervolume !available from the University. Guildford, Surrey GU2 SXH, UKI.
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Julv 1983
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