Development Strategies and Prospects of Nano-based Smart

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Development strategies and prospects of nano-based smart pesticide formulation Xiang Zhao, Haixin Cui, Yan Wang, Changjiao Sun, Bo Cui, and Zhanghua Zeng J. Agric. Food Chem., Just Accepted Manuscript • DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b02004 • Publication Date (Web): 27 Jun 2017 Downloaded from http://pubs.acs.org on June 28, 2017

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Development strategies and prospects of nano-based smart

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pesticide formulation

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Xiang Zhao,1,2 Haixin Cui,1,2,* Yan Wang,1 Changjiao Sun,1 Bo Cui,1 and Zhanghua

4

Zeng1

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1. Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of

7

Agricultural Sciences

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12 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China

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2. Nanobiotechnology Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences

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12 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, P. R. China

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E-mail: [email protected]

12 13

ABSTRACT:

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Pesticides are important inputs for enhancing crop productivity and preventing major

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biological disasters. However, more than 90% of pesticides run off into the

16

environment and residue in agricultural products in process of application, due to the

17

disadvantages of conventional pesticide formulation such as use of harmful solvent,

18

poor dispersion, dust drift, etc. In recent years, using nanotechnology to create novel

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formulations has shown great potential in improving the efficacy and safety of

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pesticides. The development of nano-based pesticide formulation aims at precise

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release of necessary and sufficient amounts of their active ingredients, in responding

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to environmental triggers and biological demands through controlled release

23

mechanisms. This paper discusses several scientific issues and strategies regarding

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development of nano-based pesticide formulations: (i) Construction of water-based

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dispersion pesticide nanoformulation; (ii) Mechanism on leaf-targeted deposition and

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dose transfer of pesticide nano-delivery system; (iii) Mechanism on increased

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of

nano-based

pesticide

formulation;

and

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bioavailability

(iv)

Impacts of

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nanoformulation on natural degradation and bio-safety of pesticide residues.

29 30

KEYWORDS:

31

nano-delivery system

nanoformulation,

pesticide,

nanotechnology,

agriculture,

32 33

1. Introduction

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Pesticides play an important role in defensing of biological disasters, ensuring

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the crop productivity and promoting the sustained steady growth of agricultural

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production1. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

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Nations (FAO) statistics, pest and pathogen control with pesticides has restored 30%

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of total output of agricultural products all over the world2,3. However, indiscriminate

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pesticide usage also brings a serious threat to the environment and human health. The

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annual input amounts of pesticides have reached 4.6 million tons worldwide, 90% of

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which run off into the environment, residue in agricultural products and redistribute in

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ecological cycle during application4-10. Inefficient use of pesticides causes a series of

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ecological environment problems, such as pathogen and pest resistance, non-point

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pollution, water eutrophication, soil degradation, bioaccumulation in food chain, and

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loss of biodiversity (Figure 1).

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Figure 1. Inefficient use of pesticides caused a series of environment problems

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Most of the pesticide active ingredients (AIs) are water-insoluble organic

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compounds, which need to be added with carrier, solvent, emulsifier, dispersant and

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other auxiliary ingredients, and processed into a suitable formulation in order to

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facilitate the spray application in field11. The loss and decomposition rate of pesticide

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on crop foliar is typically up to 70%, caused by run-off, spray drift and rolling down

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during field application12,13. The actual utilization of biological target uptake is only

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less than 0.1% after dust drift and rainwater leaching14,15 (Figure 2). The off-target

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loss is the crucial problem for inefficient usage of conventional pesticide

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formulations13,16. Wettable powder (WP) and emulsifiable concentrate (EC) are two

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major conventional pesticide formulations. WP is a crushed powder pesticide

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formulation composed of pesticide AIs, inert fillers and other additives. The inorganic

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fillers in WP easily drift and run off into the environment, and the loaded AIs cannot

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be completely released. In addition, the residual pesticides are difficult to be degraded.

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EC is a liquid pesticide formulation. Pesticide AIs are dissolved in the solvent, added

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with emulsifier, and then diluted into water to form a stable emulsion. The organic

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solvents and toxic ingredients directly leach and leak into the environment while

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pesticide spraying, resulting serious pollutants in soil and water system, chemical

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residues in crops and food products, and potential threat to human health17. These

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environmental problems and health risks has aroused the universal concerns.

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Figure 2. Low efficiency of conventional pesticide formulations

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Nanotechnology represents a new impetus for sustainable agriculture

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development, thus using nanotechnology to formulate nano-based smart formulation

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for pesticides and nutrients by virtue of nanomaterials related properties has shown a

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great potential for alleviation of these problems18-20. Nano-based smart formulation

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could release their AIs in responding to environmental triggers and biological

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demands more precisely through targeted delivery or controlled release mechanisms.

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Developing new advanced nano-based formulations that remain stable and active in

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the spray condition (sun, heat, rain), penetrate and delivery to the target, prolong the

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effective duration, and reduce the run-off in environment, is one of the hotspots in the

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field of nano-technical agriculture applications11,21,22. In 2003, United States

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Department of Agriculture (USDA) firstly launched the Nanoscale Science and

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Engineering for Agriculture and Food Systems Research Program, smart delivery

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systems of agricultural chemicals was one of the key research directions23. In 2009,

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Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) held the International Conference on Food

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and Agriculture Applications of Nanotechnologies, and published a strategic research

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report on the prospects of nanotechnologies in agriculture24. Recent years, United

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States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and European Commission have

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successively enacted rules on the management and usage of nanopesticides25,26. Bayer,

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DuPont, Syngenta and other agrochemical enterprises also pay great attention to the

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development of nano-based pesticide formulations, and some products has been

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applied to crop production or plant protection24.

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2. Nano-based pesticide formulation: properties and advantages

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Nanotechnology involves manufacture, manipulation, and application of

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ultrafine materials that have at least one size dimension in the order of 1-100nm27.

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Particles

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surface-to-volume ratio and unique optical properties at a critical length scale of less

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than 100 nm11. However, because other phenomena (transparency, turbidity, stable

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dispersion, etc.) that extend the upper limit are occasionally considered, a broader

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definition of nano-based pesticide formulations is accepted as systems with

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dimensions smaller than 500 nm, exhibit novel properties associated with their small

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size19,28-30.

have

unique

properties

such

as

size-dependent

qualities,

high

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Nanomaterials held great promise regarding their application in nano-based

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pesticide formulation due to their small size, big surface area and target modified

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properties. Nano-based formulation may bring beneficial improvements in properties

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and behaviors of pesticides, such as solubility, dispersion, stability, mobility and

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targeting delivery. Furthermore, it might significantly improve the efficacy, safety and

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economic effects of traditional pesticides by increasing efficacy, extending effect

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duration, reducing dose required, providing capability to controlled release of active

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ingredients, and improving stability of payloads from the environment; subsequently

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diminishing run-off and environmental residuals (Figure 3).

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Figure 3. Nano-based formulation brings beneficial improvements in pesticides properties

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The size, shape, surface charge, crystal phase and the presence of different

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modified functional groups of nanoparticles are critical factors in their application31. A

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broad variety of natural or synthesized materials are used in construction of pesticide

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nanoformulations, such as metal, metal oxides, non-metal oxides, carbon, silicates,

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ceramics, clays, layered double hydroxides, polymers, lipids, dendrimers, proteins,

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quantum dots, and so on32-36. Nano-pesticides may be developed by two pathways,

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directly processing into nanoparticles (nanosized pesticides), and loading pesticides

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with nano-carriers in delivery systems11. In nano-carrier systems, pesticides are

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loaded through: encapsulation inside the nanoparticulate polymeric shell, absorption

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onto the nanoparticle surface, attachment on the nanoparticle core via ligands, or

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entrapment within the polymeric matrix (Figure 4).

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A variety of nanoformulation types have been developed, including

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nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, nanospheres, nanosuspensions, solid lipid nanoparticles,

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nanoparticles,

and

nanoclays37-41.

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mesoporous

Aqueous

nanoemulsion

and

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nanosuspension of pesticides increase solubility of water insoluble AIs, eliminate the

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toxic organic solvents, and would gradually substitute the conventionally EC

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products42-44. Nanocapsule and nanosphere are suggested as vehicles for the

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environmentally sensitive pesticides, due to their capability to slow release of AIs,

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improve stability of formulation, prevent early degradation, and extend the longevity

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of pesticides45-48. Mesoporous nanoparticles, such as nanoclay, activated carbon and

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porous hollow silica are also verified to be suitable for the controlled release and

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delivery systems for the water-soluble and fat-dispersible pesticides which possess

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high drug-loading capacity, good biocompatibility, low toxicity and multistage release

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pattern49,50.

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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of nano-based pesticide formulation

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3. Challenges and scientific issues

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The mode of pesticide application influences their efficiency and environmental

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impact51-53. Insect pests and pathogens are the targets of pesticides. However, it is

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extremely difficult to directly spray the pesticides on pests or pathogens. As a result,

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the pesticides are sprayed on the crop foliage to form an effective toxic zone,

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maintaining the toxic stress on the pests or pathogens. Currently spraying system of

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pesticide application needs to focus on efficacy enhancement and spray drift

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management11.

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Most of the pesticide AIs are poorly soluble, or even insoluble in water. One of

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the challenges associated with pesticide formulation is increasing their solubility and

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dispersion in aqueous solution. In addition, the most of crop leaf surfaces are highly

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hydrophobic which inhibits liquid deposition54,55. Thus another challenge is reducing

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the spray drift and run-off loss on the hydrophobic foliage. As shown in Figure5,

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size-down of pesticide particles benefit to significantly improve their water-dispersion,

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targeting coverage and insecticidal activity due to smaller particle size and higher

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surface area. In addition, Pesticide nanoformulations increase adhesion and deposition

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of droplets on the leaves through leaf-affinity modification.

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Figure 5. Size-down of pesticides increase bioavailability and efficiency

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After spraying on the foliage, the pesticide droplets spread and adhere on the leaf

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surfaces, and then the AIs deposite, release and transfer from the foliage to the pest or

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pathogen targets, finally kill the insects or pathogens before degradation (Figure 6).

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Therefore, water-dispersion, leaf-affinity, bio-availability and residues degradation are

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the most critical factors regarding development of nano-based pesticide formulations.

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Four key scientific issues for improvement of pesticide efficacy and safety are

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proposed: (i) Construction of water-based dispersion pesticide nanoformulation; (ii)

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Mechanism on leaf-targeted deposition and dose transfer of pesticide nano-delivery

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system; (iii) Mechanism on increased bioavailability of nano-based pesticide

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formulation; and (iv) Impacts of nanoformulation on natural degradation and

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bio-safety of pesticide residues.

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Figure 6. Four critical factors regarding development of nano-based pesticide formulations

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4. Construction of water-based dispersion pesticide nanoformulation

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The fundamental limitation with the use of current pesticides is that they are

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generally comprised of virtually insoluble compounds57. This lack of solubility

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requires the addition of large amounts of organic solvents for dissolution and spraying

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application in field, which increases costs, applicators' exposures and environmental

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pollutants58. Water-based dispersion pesticide nanoformulations improve the solubility

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and dispersion in water, uniform leaf coverage, biological efficacy and environmental

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compatibility, due to the small particle size, high surface area and elimination of

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organic solvents in comparison to conventionally formulations58-60.

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Synthesis of nano-based formulations involve size reduction by top-down

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methods such as milling, high pressure homogenization and sonication, while

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bottom-up processes involve meltdispersion, solvent displacement, complex

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coacervation, interfacial polymerization, and emulsion diffusion13, 61. Nanocapsules,

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nanoemulsions, nanospheres, nanomicelles, and nanosuspensions show great potential

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for improving formulation properties, such as water-dispersion, chemical stability,

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targeting adhesion, permeability and controlled release (Figure 7).

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Figure 7. Schematic representation of water-based dispersion pesticide nanoformulation

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Nanocapsules are core−shell structural vesicular systems, encapsulating the

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pesticide AIs in the inner core. The shell is usually composed of biodegradable

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polymeric, including poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL), polylactic acid (PLA), polyglycolic

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acid (PGA), poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA), polyethylene glycol (PEG),

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chitosan, and etc62-69. The polymeric shell degrades slowly in the environment, thus

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improves chemical stability for environment-sensitive compounds (i.e., UV

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degradation and soil degradation). In addition, nanocapsules can increase the targeting

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delivery efficiency with membranal polymeric leaf-affinity modification, improving

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the behaviors of wetting, spreading and absorbing of droplets on leaves.

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Nanoemulsions are oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions where the pesticides are dis-

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persed as nanosized droplets in water, and the surfactant molecules localized at the

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pesticide-water interface71-73. Nanoemulsions improve the efficacy and safety effects

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of traditional pesticides, due to the small size effect, high dissolution rate and

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elimination of toxic organic solvents.

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Nanospheres are solid sphere vesicular systems where the pesticides are

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uniformly distributed through adsorption or entrapment inside the nano-matrix74-77.

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Nanospheres are composed of organic polymer materials or inorganic mesoporous

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materials, such as activated carbon, non-metal oxides and porous hollow silica.

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Nanospheres possess high drug-loading capacity, good biocompatibility and

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slow/controlled release pattern, showing great potential in soil infection disease and

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soil pest control78-80.

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Nanomicelles are ideal bioactive smart nano delivery systems for encapsulating

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pesticides. Nanomicelles can be induced by the external environment, and thus make

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the corresponding changes in physical and chemical properties. For example, based

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on the hydrogen bonding cross-linked nanomicelle, an environment-responsive

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controlled release system was constructed. Under high temperature and high humidity

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conditions, the hydrogen bonding fractured, the nanomicelle swelled and the

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pesticides were released. The pesticides were blocked under low temperature and low

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humidity conditions the other way round81.

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Naonosuspensions are pesticide nanoparticles uniformly suspended in water. The

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aqueous colloid dispersion systems render higher solubility and dispersion for

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insoluble or fat-dispersible compounds in solution, improve the pesticide

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bioavailability, and reduce the costs due to the ease to large-scale manufacture.

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5. Mechanism on leaf-targeted deposition and dose transfer of pesticide

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nano-delivery system

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The pesticide spray application on foliage is inadequate due to the weak adhesion

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to the crop foliage. For the spray pesticides, pesticides are firstly deposited on crop

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foliage, and then they go to parts of the plant attacked by a pest through diffusion,

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uptake and/or transfer processes, leading to pest poisoning or death by active or

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passive contact13, 82. Consequently, leaf hydrophobicity and pesticide droplet retention

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are key parameters affecting the effective utilization of pesticides. As shown in Figure

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8, the pesticide droplet forms a spherical shape, minimizing contact with the

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hydrophobic foliage, poorly wetting and spreading on the waxy layer, and resulting in

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loss as rolling down and run-off. After water evaporation, the residual pesticide

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particles easily drift or fall off from the leaves, since the particles are too large to

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embed in the microstructured or nanostructured mastoids of leaf surfaces.

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Nano-delivery systems form stable dispersions, increase the efficiency, and

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improve the wetting and spreading behavior on leaf surface, due to the leaf-affinity

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modification of pesticides. In addition, the pesticide nanoparticles deposite and adhere

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favorably on the surface of foliage, leading to increased retention rate and decreased

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spraying dosage (Figure 8). The adhesion properties of nano-based formulation were

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achieved by the multimodal interactions between the nanoparticles and the crop

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foliage, such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction and covalent bonding83.

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The adhesion strength strongly depended on the size distribution of nanoparticles and

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the functional groups on the nanoparticle surface, and was easily regulated by size

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controlling and varying functional groups82. Carboxyl-modified nanocapsules reduced

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the surface tension of pesticide dispersions, decreased the contact angle of droplet on

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hydrophobic foliage, and improved the retention rate84,85. Additionally, increased leaf

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coverage, improved diffusion properties, and penetration into plants were

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observed47,86.

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Figure 8. Pesticide deposition efficiency and dose transfer mechanism

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6. Mechanism on increased bioavailability of nano-based pesticide formulation

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Compared with the traditional pesticide formulation, nano-based formulations

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have smaller particle size and larger specific surface area, which can effectively

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increase the coverage, adhesion and permeability of the pest. In addition, nano-based

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formulations may affect the action modes and the transfer paths of conventional

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pesticides by introducing insect-target modification and enhancing release of AIs

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(Figure 9). Pesticides can be classified according to four distinctive functions:

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stomach poisoning, the pesticide enters the body of pests via their mouthpart and

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digestive system; inhalation poisoning, pesticides enters the body of pests via fluids

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from a consumed host organism; contact poisoning, the pesticide enters the body of

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pests via their epidermis upon contact; and fumigation, the pesticide in gas form

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enters the body of pests via their respiration system. It was presumed that nano-based

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formulation might enhance the stomach poisoning and contact poisoning functions,

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since it significantly improve the dispersal and permeability, and thus increase the rate

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of pesticide entering pest bodies87,88. Furthermore, the enhancement of the transport,

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conduction and transformation efficiency of pesticide nanoparticles inside pests can

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accelerate pests poisoning, further improve the efficacy, bioactivity and dose effect of

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pesticides89.

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Figure 9. Bioavailability of pesticide nano-delivery system

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7. Impacts of nanoformulation on degradation and bio-safety

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Inevitably, nanoparticles will be released into the plants and the environment system.

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The unique physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles might cause some

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unpredictable adverse effects on crops, agricultural products and ecosystem90-93. In

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addition, these materials will accumulate over time in soils and rates may vary in

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response to unknown parameters94,95. The general concern is that some nanoparticles or

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nanostructured materials may flow into the environmental systems and food chain, which

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may become a new class of pollutant resources that threaten human health and ecosystem

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balance. However, because farmland is an open complicated system with many

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influencing factors of complicated functions, actual data measuring environmental

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concentration of nanoformulations in various media is scarce96-98. The environmental fate

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and

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nanoformulations is also unclear99. Therefore, avoiding risk research should be conducted

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on safety and risk assessments of nanopesticides according to the methodologies

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established in nanotoxicology and nanomedicine. Investigating the toxicological effect,

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environmental behavior, and pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles, studying the interaction

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mechanism between nanoparticles and plants, and evaluating their potential impact on the

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quality and safety of agricultural products can provide a theoretical basis for the

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development of nanopesticides and the sustainable implementation of nanotechnology in

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agriculture (Figure 10). On the other hand, nano-based pesticide formulation can

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accelerate the catalytic degradation of toxic residues and reduce the pesticide residues in

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environment by introducing bio-degradable material carriers and photocatalysts100.

potential

bio-safety

problem

of

nanomaterials

or

nanoparticles

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Figure 10. Catalytic degradation and bio-safety of pesticide residues

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8. Conclusion and prospects

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Clearly, nano-based pesticide formulations have many advantages over the

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conventional equivalents such as high efficiency, environment friendliness,

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high-targeting delivery and smart controlled release. Due to the technological

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advancement, large scale applications of nanopesticides in crop production have just

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become possible. These are the desired properties and research objectives of

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nano-based pesticide formulations as summarized in Table 1.

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Table 1. Desired properties and research objectives of nano-based pesticide

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formulations Desirable Properties

Research objectives of Nanopesticieds-Enabled Technologies Increasing targeted delivery efficiency of pesticide into action

Targeted delivery

targets, such as plants, insects, pathogen16,17,24,27,30 . Controlling release of pesticide at least effective concentration for

Controlled release

killing pests and pathogens30,37,46-50,84,85,101,102. Increasing solubility and dispersion for fat-soluble chemicals in

Water dispersion

aqueous solution40,43-4556,59,70-73. Improving chemical stability for light-sensitive compounds by

Chemical stability

Bioavailability

restricting photo-degradation46,70-83,86. Increasing bioavailability for saving pesticides89,99. Reducing pesticides application and treatment frequency by

Lasting validity period

Lower toxicity

extended lasting validity period80,82,83,86. Protecting biodiversity in ecosystem16,17,24. Reducing food residues and non-point source pollution due to the

Environmental friendliness minimum pesticide loss29,30,41,53. 324 325

In conclusion, nano-based pesticide formulations bring beneficial improvements

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in properties and behaviour of traditional pesticides such as solubility, dispersion,

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stability, and targeting delivery, controlled release of active ingredients. Additionally,

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it might not only significantly improve the bioavailability and the duration of drug

329

efficacy, but also reduce the toxicity of non-target wildlife, the food and

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environmental residual. On the other hand, some toxic nanoparticles from pesticides

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may flow into the environment and food systems threaten human health and

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ecosystem balance. Avoiding risk research should be conducted on safety and risk

333

assessments of nanopesticides according to the methodologies established in

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nanotoxicology and nanomedicine. Safer and bio-degradable nanomaterials should be

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developed for nanopesticides production. As a most promising and attractive field of

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nanotechnology application in agriculture, these novel agrochemical products will

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provide multiple benefits such as reduced use of chemicals and subsequently reduced

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water pollution and food product residual contamination, efficient use of agricultural

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resources, increased soil and environmental qualities.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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This paper was supported by the Major National Scientific Research Program of

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China (2014CB932200), the National Key Research and Development Program of

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China (2017YFD0500900, 2016YFD0200500), and the Agricultural Science and

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Technology Innovation Program (CAAS-XTCX2016004).

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