Developmental Instruction Part II. Application of the Perry Model to General Chemistry David C. Finster Wittenberg University, P.O. Box 720, Springfield,Ohio 45501 Part I of this series (I)described William Perry's model of intellectual and ethical development (2).His scheme represents a continuum of thinking from simplistic, rightwrong patterns (dualism) to a more complicated, contextual view of reality (relativism). There were three key couclusions of Part I. 1.First-year students are usually dualistic in thinking. 2. Chemistry is usually viewed and taught dualistically. 3. It is appropriate and possible to promote growth along the scheme using the strategy of developmentalinstruction.
This paper will describe the context andtechniques of developmental instruction within a Perry framework. Table 1provides a useful review of the first half of the scheme. A Student Development Theory context for Developmental Instruction A wide range of models and typologies describing college students emerged during the 1960's and 1970's (4).Nevitt Sanford proposed (5) that developmental growth is best fostered in an environment that couples challenge-for stimulating the student to confront new ideas in new ways-to a support systemthat enables thestudent tomeet the appropriate challenge. These are the key elements of developmental instruction. Applying this notion directly to the Perry scheme suggests that to promote a student within the scheme, instructors should offer challenges at roughly the "plus one" (+I) level. Controlled classroom experiments that measured the effect of the +1 strategy of teaching found that more pro-
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Journal of Chemical Education
gression along the scheme occurs when students are challenged to function above their levels rather than a t them (6-9). Thus, to help a dualistic student (position 2) move to multiplistic thinking (position 31, one must challenge the bipolar nature of dualistic thinking by presenting multiplistic perspectives of an issue and letting them reconcile the inadequacy of the dualist position. Helping students wrestle with the inadequacy of their arguments provides the support necessary to assist them to meet the challenge of change. In this context, developmental teaching is an interactive process between teacher and student. However, presenting the pure dualist with a challenge to operate a t the relativist level may represent an insurmountable challenge (presenting relativist ideas to a dualist is not always inappropriate, nor can it always be avoided). Students are a t positions 2-5, with first-year students usually in the 2 3 range (10,ll). Parker has suggested (12) that college teachers hold positions 6 9 . However, other preliminary work indicates that when faculty discuss teaching strategies and their own views of education, their conversations are couched in terms that are categorized as dualist (lo%),multiplist (30%), relativist (45%), and committed in relativism (15%)(13). Thus, teachers appear to be functioning a t advanced Perry levels in the classroom, often well beyond the ideal +1 rule of thumb. The implications for successful teaching are clear. If most general chemistry students are a t positions 2 3 , then the most productive teaching will occur at positions 3-4, coupled with the appropriate support system.
Table 1. Student Perceptions of Educational Characteristics along the Perry Scheme (3)
Nature of Knowledge
DUALISM Positions 1 & 2
EARLY MULTIPLICITY Position 3
MULTlPLlCiTY Position 4a EARLY RELATIVISM Position 4b
CONTEXTUAL RELATIVISM Position 5
All knowledge is known, right and wrong answers exist. Truth exists. Knowledge is quantitative; a collection of facts.
Much knowledge is known; but uncertainty exists. Truth exists, but it is incomplete. There is a process to discover more truth.
a) In some areas uncertainty exists; in most areas we really don't know anything for sure. "All opinions are equal." No one is wrong. b) Knowledge is contextual, but authorities must supply the guide or context. (Hiddendualism.)
All knowledge is complex and contextual. There is no absolute truth. Right and wrong can existonly within specified contexts. "Rules of adequacy" apply to arguments. Quality is more important than quantity. -
al Sets the context of the &ademic game; but is only an authority since "all opinions are equal." Often seen as dogmatic. b) Model '?he way they want us to thinkand use evidence.
Source of expertise. A guide or consunant. Mutuality of learning is Sought.
a) Independent thought; confront and challenge the instructor as equal. b) To learn "how they want us to think."
Exercise the intellect and apply "rules of adequacy" to information, judgements, perspectives.
a ~ r n o rbst , c r be leg t mate in nelping to find the truth.
a) Can either be ignored or valued since "all opinions are equal." b) Sources of diversity of thouaht - and .Derspective. .
Sources of learning and diversity.
Is the test 'Yair" in terms of knowable right answers? Amount of hard work no longer a standard. Long answers demonstrate knowledge.
a) The "academic game" Is to figure out how the teacher wants you to answer, regardless of what you really think. "How can you grade when there are no right answers?' b) Show independent or relativistic thought as taught in class.
To compare a n o r a s t mult~pe perspenlves D st ng- sn contenl from process
a) Play the "intellectual game'' well. Good at analysis. b) Use supporting evidence, learning to think abstractly. Relate academics to "real life" Examine assumptions and processes.
Relate learning between different . - - contexts. . ~- See -~~ relationships and complexity. Modify and expand concepts. Horizontaldecalage.
Sources of Challenge and Ambiguity, multiple perspectives, uncertainty. Frustration Dispute between authorities. Interpretation and independent thinking.
Recognizing that uncertainty may not just be temporary. Learning processes. Trying to determine which answer is "really right". Qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, complexity.
a) Demand to use evidence to support opinion. Comparing assumptions and processes b) Accepting responsibility in learning to think independently and listen lo authorities.
Requirement of choice or commitment. How to choose between good alternatives. New contexts. Scholarly work.
High degree of structure. Concrete examples, experiential learning. Presence of authority that professes truth.
Structure to organize diversity, ambiguity, and uncertainty. Clear assignments involving process. Clarity of evaluation issues. Faith in process towards truth. Access to authority.
a + b) Enjoys diversity and open class atmosphere. b) Presence of authority to help evaluate contexts.
Diversity of options. Feels comfortable in movina across contexts; fee ig o nte ectda mastery. Can seek a a of expert. Peers.
towards seeking truth.
I work hard.
I p
e
r
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Not leg timate sodrces of knowleoge.
Evaluation Issues
.
I
Right is good; wrong is bad. Tests should be clear-cut and objective. Hard work should be rewarded.
Prlmary lnte e c t u ~ a s < s Learn basc D!sl#ngulsnr~ghtfrom wrong Provlae explanations.
1
Sources of External Support
I
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1
- Evaluat~onof work separated from eva ~ aorr of self. Tests are opportunities for feedbacl and imaovement. Testinl is part of the learning process. Quality of answer is important.
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diversity a n d independent thinking. There are several ways to bridge t h i s gap. Studies have indicated (14) that. eiven t h e choice. students prefer solutions t h a t rebresenctheir o w n position o r t h e +1 position along t h e scheme. (Although students usua l l y cannot generate a +1 argument, t h e y prefer it once seen.) T h i s illustrates t h e concepts of challenge a n d support. Thus, to promote g r o w t h f r o m position 2 t o position 3, w e m u s t present ideas t h a t create a dissonance, t h u s forci n g t h e m to reconcile t h e inadequacy o f position 2 thinking. An attractive feature o f t h i s Drocess. o f course. i s t h a t it keeps t h e students as t h e central figures int h e i r kducation.
H o w do students a t different P e r r y stages v i e w various aspects o f t h e educational process? Table 1 summarizes pertinent educational issues in terms o f Peny's positions 2-5 (3). These ideas define educational strategies f o r propositions. m o t i n g g r o w t h in terms o f specific Applications
of Perry in the Classroom
General Comments T h e P e r r y scheme offers a framework in w h i c h teachers canunderstand h o w students m a k e m e a n i n a o f t h e i r world. I t relates assumptions about knowledge and t h e presumed roles o f teachers a n d students t h a t students a n d teachers hold. Understanding these often-hidden assumptions allows teachers to create a b e t t e r environment for p r o m o t i n g specific l e a r n i n g o f given subject m a t t e r a n d general education o f t h e student. Ifdisciplines a r e relativistic b y n a t u r e a n d students are usuallv dualistic. must we teach a t t h e dualist level? Certainlynot. T h e students w a n t structure, facts, a n d simplicity, but t h a t m a y n o t h e w h a t they need f o r g r o w t h t o w a r d
P e r r y a n d others have noted t h a t a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y function a t one position in one area but a t a different position in another area (15-17). Indeed, it i s easy to envision a student f u n d i o n i n g a t position 2 in a science t a u g h t dualistically) but a t position course (particularly if 4 in a l i t e r a t u r e course. P e r r y h a s f u r t h e r suggested t h e pmcess ofhorizontal decalage (151, r e f e m n g t o t h e capacity t o function a t a higher level in one context and eventually u s i n g t h a t framework for other contexts. I n t r o d u c i n g posi-
Table 2. Matrix o f ChallengelSupporI Issues for General Chemistry Classes Note:The following guidelines represent general activities and strategies for functioning in challenging and suppoltive ways. Any given class or course mav have a comolex mixture of these tasks that reoresents a uniaue and aooroDriafe balance of challenae and sumort. Support for Dualists Structure
Lecture; provide a context for studying chemistry; define new terms clearly; carefully sequence from simple ideas to more comolex ideas: have lecture. text. and labs coincide in content and time: orovlde helo sessions to oo over I oroblem skts:~hold~oractice for course: ~ orovibk ~ . a ,clear ~ sdt of exoectatirk and r ~ -. exams:~ orovlde . . ~detailed svllabus ~, grad ng scneme: Lse cop ous examples of proolem solvlng: overtly re ate lab and l e c l ~ r e malerla ; Lse examples that relale to stJoent own experiences, assign homework sets that paralle lext mater al, provloe clear glr del nes for lab reports; oolect ve tests: man mtze st~dentparltctpat on In c ass; test towards lower parts of Bloom's taxonomy. . -. - - .. .+M n maze dlvers Iy of learning experiences, i.e, avo d mu tip e (and certainly contraoictory ) soLrces of nformat on. (leadre. texts, extra read ngs, etc.), avo d team- reacn ng; m nimize 'exceptions to fne rdle' for fneories an0 patterns. . . - Use lecture demonstrations and lab experiments to verify and cement lecture ideas and principles as much as ~osslble:relate examoles in chemistrv of a car window , to orevious exoeriences in studenys lives (such as the foooino "or m e ~ t i nice ' ~ with sail,: provioe aos mat worn with n;arerials known to the st~oent,(e g , sa t, oak ng powaer, vinegar. banery ac d, and orner common smstances Jsed n everyaay fe.) - .As the professor, be available for office hours, hold discussions sections in reasonably small groups, circulate in the lab, be available before and after class, create a comfortablelearning environment (by using positive affect, positive reinforcement,) display enthusiasm for learning and chemistry; use personal (but not inappropriate) anecdotes and self-disclosure; comprehensive and detailed feedback on tests and labs. ~~
D versify Experiential Learnino ~
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Personalism
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Support for Multlpllsts; Challenges for Dualists Str~cture
- 0rganlzi the course with some oppon~nityfor flex b IIy n terms of content an0 sequencmg: provioe direct ons a b o ~ t how to generate problem solving strategies (rather than present ng rote examples): structure groLp work and analysfs of ab re% Is oy groLps; have st~dentscontro design some aspect of the earn ng experence. . . .-. - -.- ... .-. DISCLSS varlo~s approaches t i model;and'theones, vario~sinterpretat ons of results: use sources beyona professor ana text; let the soJrces aisagree when propit ods; examme exceptions to rdles. - . --Prov de concrete exoeriinces that relv less on a ~ t n otles r an0 more on oeers and self.. ea.. case studies anaivzed in 1 orouos. oroiectsllabk done in teams. ' .--
Divers ty Ex~erientia ~eernina Personalism
.
Create an environment (In lab or discussion groups) that encourages more risk-taking and disclosure of independent thinking on the part of the student; use positive feedback techniques to foster participation; more discussion of issues related to chemistrv (as ODDosed to traditional textbook content.1 Support for Relativists; Challenge for Multiplists
siruaJT
provide more independent learn ng environment; present professor as a sodrce of expertise or glr de; deslgn f ex o111Iy In codrse content and topic seq~encingand encourage stdaenl partic~patlonn allermg schedule: encodrage stuaents to aeve op tnelr own defmit on of proolems and worn out fhelr own so ~tions,eg, se ect own term paper top cs, length an0 format; let the stdoents selecl rhe~rown labs and mod fy des gn, team teacnng: prov de h stor cal or societal context of c o m e content, test across the whole range of Bloom's laxonomy
Diversfly Exoer ential ~eernina Personalism
754
Present Issues of both qda itat ve and qLant tative d versq, part c~larlyw th non-tradt onal top~cs:let stuoents argue merits of competing theor es or mterpretarlons.
I Encouraae r e a ~re oro~ectsthat are aef ned usual v. bv.the st~dents: stud es n the lab: rev on more . lnde~endent . I vicarious-and abstract iearnina exoeriences. I Odimize class ~artici~ation by students: present professor as "exwrt learner or guide.
Journal of Chemical Education
tion4 ideas ton position 2student may not he an inordinate challenge if that student is already l'unctioninp -at position . 4 in othir areas. Any classroom of individuals spans a range of developmental or personality types. Even if one could teach from the perspective of a single position, some students would he overwhelmed while others would not he challenged. Students a t higher positions often revert to lower positions when encountering new disciplines (18,19). (This is parallel in Piaget's work to the utility of concrete examples and experiences even for those functioning at the formal operational level.) Similarly, presentinx relativist ideas in a usually dualistic science ciass may be appropriate if some students are functional relativists in other areas and able to make the transition in science given proper support. It is not necessary to specifically assess the Perry positions of each student in a class or to focus specifically on +1strategies. I t is a reliable assumption that general chemistry students function mainlv at Dositions 2-3. The best teaching strategy for co~mitivegrowth encourages thinking at the oositions of the students and iust bevond. L'sinr! stratthe egi& (described below) from a"rangeVof teacher can challenge and support that range of the classroom. How does one start to put all this together? In general, I assume my classes are mixtures of dualist and multiplist students with a tendency to see science as a dualist venture. My main challenge is to slowly remove the veil of sim~licitv . - from their image - of science by introducine- multiple perspectives in science and eliminating "science as authority". This reinforces the multiplists who see science as a human, value-laden venture (despite cultural norms to the contrarv) and challenges the dualists to relinquish their simplist& view of science. I use degrees of orgakzation to appeal to both dualists and multiplists. I recognize that temporary simplicity can he effective, giving initial support for dualists while planting seeds of diversity as the course proceeds. Perry has noted that the single most important factor for moving students out of dualism is diversity (2). Knefelkamp has delineated four important variables of challenge and support in the classroom: degree of structure, degree of diversity, type of experiential learning, and amount of personalism (19). General strategies for challenge and support using these variables are presented in Table 2.
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Specific Strategies
Lecture The general feeling about science presented in the classroom can helpestablish an epistemological bias in a course. To present chemistry as nmdualistic, I try to interject commtmtii and discussions in the classroom that challenge dualist thinlung. (Several cxamplesarein thenext iiection.~
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Labs The needs for experiential learning and concrete examples are i m ~ o r t a nst u ~ ~ oelements rt for dualists. The laboratory prdvides the opportunity to make connections between abstract ideas from lecture and the world of molecules, solutions, and measurements. Although highly structured labs support dualists, they can become mere exercises in "verifying the truth". However, labs that are more challenging, exploratory, or open-ended may seem too unstructured to the dualist. They may also present more risk of accidents. Beginning students have difficulty in lab unless they know exactly why they are there and "what data they're supposed to collect" (a dualist perspective). I initially just help them get comfortablefunctioning in a lab, rather than
try to structure a developmental environment that I know will heighten anxieties to an unproductive level. As the lab schedule progresses, less structure can be designed into the experiments, in the multiplistlrelativist postures, thus encouraging growth in that direction. Some examples of this are what I give the students: some choice in equipment (graduated cylinder or pipet), well-chosen options in reagents, and less guidance in performingcalculations for lab reports. Tests Atest is the ultimate statement of what is important in a course from the students' perspective, particularly for those in early positions. Both content and style send messages to the student about the nature of science. The content of a test reflects what is considered bv the teacher to be the main issues ofthe course. The inclusion ofhistory, Drocess. anolications. and Droblem solvine will challenge the s t u d e z to move beyo& the dualist p&itions. To h z p students see that these issues are really important in chemical education,they must be included in lectures, readings, and tests. The style of the test is also important. While it is wellknown that multiple choice tests can be written to go beyond simple recall issues and calculations, the impression they nonetheless leave is that there is a single right answer to questions of chemical importance. Thus, relying on such exams exclusivelv reinforces the dualist internretation and expectation of science. To emphasize process, ouestions that reouire ex~lanationand calculations (and & be readily graded wi'th partial credit) challenge the dualist view. Writing in Chemistry Lab reports should be more than filling in blanks in an established pattern. While I have found that most students need guidance structuring a lab report, i t is within that structure that I challenge dualist thinking. Constantly addressing the issues of precision and accuracy (see below) forces the student to confront these experimental limitations directly. In a summary, unstructured questions such 11s "Discuss your rcsultsn often generate a mindless list of cliches about sources of error. ~ h e s are e replaced by more focussed questions such as "What measurement most limited the predsion of the final result?' Much has been written about the use of journals in and out of class to promote analysis by the student of their own thoughts, difficulties, and approaches in chemistry. This kind of "thinking about thinking" appeals to multiplist and relativist postures and supports growth in those directions. Keeping a journal is a common activity of many courses designed - to promote mowth. Finally, any other writing assignment that forces students to examine science from more than a "body of knowledge" approach will promote growth. I have assigned term papers (20) in the second semester of general chemistry that include many elements of developmental instruction including the problem of resolving science-society dilemmas where science does not present a clear, single answer. In this a s s i m e n t students must wrestle with dilemma at the relativist level. First Day Activities Previous papers in this Journal (21, 22) and elsewhere (23)have discussed the importance of the first day of class. I follow the general guidelines suggested by Battino and include issues of science and society (such as ozone, acid rain, nuclear waste disposal, etc.). This immediately sets a tone for the course that challenges the dualist approach to science. It also establishes that the course is relevant. Volume 68 Number 9 Seotember 1991
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Specific Examples Precision and Accuracy One of the first things I do in my general chemistry clafis is define and distinrmish between musion and occumo. In addition to heingkghly useful in the lab, these concepts address thelimitation~nfs~cnce. For example, thestudent sees immediately that there is no true val;e for the mass of the electron. onlv "best aaeed-uwn values". Indeed, we can say nothinfiilhbut the &uracy'(in an absolutist sense) for most scientific measurements. This is the first step in undermining "science as truth". Chemical Formulas When discussing the law of definite composition (and other such early formulations) I mention that Dalton ignored or adiusted experimental data to make it better fit his proposai. (lndeedithe entire issue of honesty in science can be raised at propitious moments in the classroom. The sterility of sciekifii pursuits quickly evaporates.) I also mention the existence of nonstoichiometric compounds as examples of exceptions to the law. Given the difficulty that some students have with basic molecular formulas and stoichiometry, I do not focus on these exceptions, but I do plant another seed that science is a human endeavor and thus subject to human frailities. Descriptive Chemistry The area of descriptive chemistry is ripe for showing examples of the history of chemistry and, consequently, the fact that it is not a pristine march towards truth, but a historv checkered with ~oliticaland economic intrusions. I include some cnmmon examples: the IIabcr synthesis of ammonia to fulfill the German need for a nitrate source for explosives in World War I; and the Hall discovery of the chean conversion of bauxite to aluminum metal. I dieress into k i d rain or ozone holes and discuss the considerable scientific uncertainties and sometimes vociferous disaaeements that often &cur to challenge again the dualist &ion of chemistry and science.
Langmuir. I t also presents a dichotomy: viewing science as a body of knowledge and viewing science as an evolving Drocess of investieation. Collateral homework (that challenges dualisticthinking) and test questions indicate that I regard this to be an important aspect of the course. Student response to this varies from viewing this as "extra, somewhat irrelevant work" to "insight into how science really functions". This list of examiles can be extended much by a teacher's own interests and perspectives in chemistry. Conclusions The Perry model is useful in understanding how students approach their education. Although the positions set the p&ression of the scheme, the moit excitLg moments and challenges occur in the transitions between positions. Challenge and support are revealed here. I t is often easy to assess Perm ~ositionsby talking with students individually. Then the scheme bemmeseven more useful as the challenge and support can be specified to a ~ v e person. n ~ v e 2 h i nw' ~ do in a clas&oom makes a statement about what we value. Both how we lecture and how much we lecture present images of science as authoritative or ever-changing. Course content tells students what is important: history and process or facts and equations. The design of teaching strategies reflects how we expect students to learn. All these factors either present chemistry as a dualist or relativist venture and either promote or n e-~ a t e intellectual growth. Finallv. ".we know that the attitude and enthusiasm of the instructor are important determinants in the success of any college wurse. Bv offerine a framework for understanding students' learning experiences, a teacher is able to engage the students at their own level and thus establish a challenging and successful wurse. In this environment both teachers and students develop a clearer picture of purpose and opportunity.
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Literature Cited
Atomic Structure There is some disagreement among chemical educators about the utilitv in teachine the Uohr model of the atom. It is, of course, ibsolete and introduces images of atomic structure (such as orbits) that we later wish toreiect for the wave mechanical model of the atom. onet the less, I teach the Bohr model of the atom because it provides a good example in general chemistry of the scientific process of developing and then rejecting a model. This directly attacks the idea that the model is the reality, thus emphasizing that science is a process of changing models, not a n exercise in defining truth. By explaining both the triumphs of the Bohr model and its downfall, I present science as process. Also, I define the proper assessment of any theory by "degrees of fit" with observations, not by whether it is right or true. The "best" picture of atomic structure, which uses wave mechanics, is thus not the "right" picture. ("Can there be a right picture?")
1. Finder, D. C.: previous paper in this series, J Chem Edvc. 1989.66, 669-661. 2. Peny, h . , W . 0 . F o m o f I n h l k c t v a l o n d E t h i m i D e ~ o l o p r n ~ n t ~Callpgp i h e Years: ASehema; Holt, Rinehat, and Winston,Inc.; 1979. 3. Table l i s ansdaptationfmm: Comfeld, J. I-:Knefelhmp,L.L.'Comhini"gSbdent Stage and Type in the Design of Learning Environment: An Integration o f P e q Stages andHollandTypologes";Ufiuerjlh.ofMaryland.1977(usedwithpermiaSirnl. 4. Knefe1kamp.L.C u r . I-. inHI#h. Edm. 1980,5,13-26. 5. Sanford, N. Self ond Society: Social Chongo o d l d i u l l u a l D a & p m n f : Athutcn: New York, 1966. 6. Knefelhmp, L.L. "Dedopmentd Instruction";UniveraityofMwland, 1981 (used with pemiaaion1. J.G.:Welthslm.r.L.C.:Cornfeld.J.L.:Harriaon.K.H.ThsCoxn8.P~h~ 7. Touchton. -~ 1977,6i41,4&47. 8. Gahlenick F.; Honarth, J. L.: Pearl, N. "Faeiltiating lntelleetual Development in University Honors Students";UniversityofMaryland, 1983. 9. Stephenson, B. W.; Hunt, C. The Coum. Psych. 1977,6(4), 394-42. 10. Bauter-Magolda, M.; Porterfleld,W.;J of Coll. Sfu. Pers., 19%. 26,343-351. 11. Barter-Mago1da.M.;J. ofColl. Sfu. Pem., 1987, 28.M 3 e . 12. Parker, C. A. N o t l . h s o c ofColl a d T m h . of& J., 1978.22.14-29. 13. Beers, S.: Bloomingdale,Jr.,J. R.'EpistemoloBcd andlnstructionsl Assumptiiiiif Collage Teachers"; presented atAERAmeeting, Montreal, Canada, 1983. 14. Kurflss, J. Dpvel. W y c h 1977,13(61,566571. I s . Pwy. Jr., W. G. in TheModomAmonenn Callrge; Chick.-g,A W., Ed.; JasseyBass: San Francism.. 1931:..0 7 6 1 1 6 . 16. King, P, in Applying New Lkuelopmnfd Findinge; K n e f e l h p , L.; Widieh C.; Parker. C.. Eds.: Josaev-Bass: San Franeiseo. 1973. V d 4 . 3 6 5 2 .
Bonding Theory Kooser and Factor have noted the value of a good case study in demonstrating science as process (24). Just after presenting the octet rule (and noting how this oft-quoted rule is reallv reliable for onlv four atoms) I have mv students read 'cubes, Eights a
