Biochemistry 1998, 37, 14981-14988
14981
Drug Binding and Nucleotide Hydrolyzability Are Essential Requirements in the Vanadate-Induced Inhibition of the Human P-Glycoprotein ATPase† U. Subrahmanyeswara Rao* Department of Pharmacology, UniVersity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599 ReceiVed January 9, 1998; ReVised Manuscript ReceiVed July 22, 1998
ABSTRACT: P-glycoprotein (Pgp) mediates drug transport utilizing the energy released from ATP hydrolysis. However, the mechanism by which Pgp couples these two reactions remains unclear. The present work is undertaken to describe kinetically the first step, which is the interdependence of nucleotide and drug binding to the Pgp by the use of vanadate. Preincubation of human Pgp expressed in Sf9 insect cells with vanadate in the presence of Mg2+, ATP, and verapamil resulted in nearly complete and stable inhibition of the drug-stimulated ATPase function. In contrast, the Pgp ATPase function was nearly unaffected when Mg2+, ATP, or verapamil was omitted. Inhibition was highly specific for divalent cations that support ATP hydrolysis, for nucleotides that serve as substrates of hydrolysis, and for those drugs/ compounds that interact with the drug-binding/transport sites of the Pgp. Kinetic analysis indicated that vanadate inhibition was MgATP concentration-dependent with an apparent Ki value similar to the apparent Km, suggesting that MgATP was bound to a similar ATP-binding site in both the ATPase inhibition and activation reactions. In support of this conclusion, vanadate, in the presence of Mg2+ and verapamil, caused selective trapping of 8-azido [R-32P] ATP and covalent labeling of ATP-binding site in the Pgp. Differences were observed in the vanadate-induced inhibition of wild-type and Val185 mutant Pgp’s with different drug/compounds. These results suggested that the affinity of the interacting drug/compound is a constant and influences the overall stability of the inhibited Pgp species. Possible implications of these observations for the coupling of ATP hydrolysis to drug transport are discussed.
Tumor cells selected in vitro against any single antineoplastic drug often develop cross-resistance to a wide variety of structurally unrelated drugs, and this phenomenon is known as multidrug resistance (MDR)1 (1). These MDR cells frequently express large quantities of a 130-170 kDa plasma membrane glycoprotein, referred to as Pgp (2-5). It is established that Pgp from a variety of species acts as an energy-dependent transporter that extrudes from cells a spectrum of drugs and compounds with diverse structures (5-7). The human Pgp is a 1280-amino-acid-long polypeptide and shares considerable sequence and structural homology to the members of ATP-binding cassette transporter superfamily (3, 8). Pgp, a tandemly duplicated molecule, is predicted to have a total of 12 highly hydrophobic transmembrane segments and two cytoplasmically located ATPbinding domains. It is also established that Pgp possesses ATPase function, which is greatly stimulated by numerous anticancer drugs and chemosensitizers (9-11). In vivo studies carried out in several laboratories have demonstrated that drugs that stimulate Pgp ATPase activity are transported by Pgp, and mutations in the cytoplasmic and transmembrane †
Supported by the National Institutes of Health Grant DK 51529. * Address of correspondence: U. S. Rao, Ph.D., Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Campus Box 984525, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-4525. Phone: 402559-6654. Fax: 402-559-6650. E-mail:
[email protected]. 1 Abbreviations: MDR, multidrug resistance; Pgp, P-glycoprotein; Sf9 insect cells, Spodoptera frugiperda insect cells; Pi, inorganic phosphate; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; PVDF, poly(vinylidene difluoride).
regions affect both the ATPase and drug efflux functions of the Pgp (12-16). Works from the laboratories of Roninson (4) and Gottesman (17) have shown that cells expressing a mutant Pgp containing glycine to valine substitution at amino acid 185 (Val185 Pgp) exhibit preferentially increased resistance to colchicine. The increased resistance is due to increased colchicine efflux by Pgp from these cells. Subsequent biochemical studies have demonstrated that Val185 Pgp also exhibits preferentially increased affinity for colchicine and colchicine-stimulatable Pgp ATPase activity (18). The predominant view from all the above studies is that the ATPase and drug efflux are interrelated functions of the Pgp. Utilizing the ATPase measurements, we have recently differentiated the drug interactions with Pgp into two types based on the effects of the interacting drug on the ATPase function (29). One type of interaction involves binding of the drug to the drug-binding/transport site of the Pgp with concomitant stimulation of ATP hydrolysis. Compounds including verapamil, colchicine, vincristine, and vinblastine interact with the Pgp in this manner and are predicted to be transported by Pgp utilizing the energy released from ATP hydrolysis. On the other hand, certain compounds that include cyclosporins although bind to the drug-binding/ transport site of the Pgp with high affinity, they do not stimulate ATP hydrolysis and thus are not transported by the Pgp. Direct demonstration of ATP hydrolysis-dependent drug transport into the isolated membrane vesicles has been difficult owing to the highly hydrophobic nature of these compounds which tend to partition into the lipid bilayer.
10.1021/bi980072r CCC: $15.00 © 1998 American Chemical Society Published on Web 10/01/1998
14982 Biochemistry, Vol. 37, No. 42, 1998 Thus, because of the ease with which the ATPase measurements can be carried out and because the drug transport and ATPase activity are integral reactions of the Pgp, several laboratories including ours employ the drug-stimulated ATPase measurements to describe the overall transport cycle of the Pgp (9-11, 18, 29). However, the mechanism by which Pgp hydrolyzes ATP and couples the released energy to the drug transport remains unclear. A logical approach to understand the energy-coupled drug transport is to first identify the number and location of nucleotide and drug-binding sites in the Pgp molecule. There have been a number of studies attempting to identify covalently modifying nucleotide analogues (19), inhibitors, and affinity analogues that bind to the drug-binding/transport sites (20-23). However, it is not often a simple, direct procedure to use these photoaffinity analogues for labeling the ligand-binding sites, as they tend to nonspecifically label reactive functional groups unrelated to the ligand-binding sites in the protein. Furthermore, the major impediment in identifying the drug-binding sites in the Pgp molecule is that nearly all of the transport substrates identified thus far are highly hydrophobic and partition into the hydrophobic regions of the molecule embedded in the membrane bilayer. Whether such regions represent true drug-binding sites of the Pgp molecule is unclear at present. An alternative approach toward ameliorating these problems is the discovery that, vanadate, a phosphate analogue and potent inhibitor of several ATPases, selectively traps the nucleotides in the myosin ATPase catalytic site and stably inhibits the enzyme activity (24, 25). Employing a similar approach, Senior and co-workers have recently demonstrated that vanadate also stably inhibits the Chinese hamster Pgp ATPase by trapping MgADP in the catalytic site (25). However, the role of transport substrate and selectivity of the ligands in the vanadate-induced inhibition of Pgp are not clear. The present study seeks to demonstrate the interdependence of interactions of ligands that participate in the ATP hydrolysis and drug-transport reactions in the vanadate-induced inhibition of Pgp. MATERIALS AND METHODS Recombinant BaculoViruses Expressing the Human Pgp’s. Preparation of recombinant baculoviruses carrying the human wild-type MDR1 cDNA and characterization of two isolates, MDR1 BV 9 and MDR1 BV 10, were reported previously (18). The Pgp’s expressed by both of these recombinant baculoviruses were functionally identical, and isolate MDR1 BV 9 was used in the present study as a source of human wild-type Pgp. Preparation of recombinant baculovirus carrying the mutant Val185 MDR1 cDNA, termed Val185 MDR1 BV, was previously reported (26). The Pgp derived from this cDNA is called Val185 Pgp in this paper. Preparation of Membrane Fraction from Sf9 Insect Cells Infected with Recombinant BaculoViruses. Cultured Sf9 insect cells were grown and infected with the recombinant baculoviruses, Escherichia coli β-galactosidase cDNA containing baculovirus (β-Gal BV), MDR1 BV 9, and Val185 MDR1 BVs, as described previously (18). The total membrane fraction from the infected Sf9 insect cells was prepared, resuspended in a glycerol buffer (50 mM Tris, 50 mM mannitol, 2 mM EGTA, 2 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, and
Rao 30% (w/v) glycerol, pH adjusted to 7.0 with HCl), and used immediately or stored at -20 °C for later use. Pgp ATPase ActiVity Determination. The Pgp ATPase activity was determined by incubating 5 µL of membrane suspension in 0.1 mL of reaction mixture at 37 °C for 10 min. The reaction mixture contained 50 mM Tris, pH 6.8, with HCl, 2 mM EGTA, 2 mM DTT, 50 mM KCl, 5 mM NaN3, 5 mM MgSO4, 5 mM ATP, and 1 µL of drug prepared in DMSO. The assay was stopped by the addition of 0.1 mL of 5% SDS solution, and the liberated Pi was measured colorimetrically (27). Each of the experiments described in this paper was carried out at least 4 times using membranes prepared from more than 5 different batches of infected Sf9 insect cells with essentially the same results. Vanadate Inhibition of the Pgp ATPase. A colorless stock solution of 10 mM sodium orthovanadate (Sigma) was prepared in distilled water, and its pH was adjusted to 7.0 with MOPS and kept at room temperature for at least 2 weeks before being used in these studies (25, 28). Membranes (∼100 µg of membrane protein) were incubated at room temperature for 5 min in 0.2 mL of 50 mM Tris Cl buffer, pH 7.0, containing 0.1 mM vanadate and other ligands such as Mg2+, ATP, and drugs/compounds as indicated in each individual experiment. The excess ligands present in the preincubation mixtures were removed in the following way. The incubation mixtures were centrifuged at 13 000 rpm in an Eppendorf microfuge for 4 min at 4 °C. The pelleted membranes were resuspended in 0.5 mL of ice cold 50 mM Tris Cl buffer, pH 7.0, and centrifuged as above. The pelleted membranes were then resuspended in a small volume of glycerol buffer and assayed for the verapamilstimulated ATPase activity as described above. In a typical experiment, the duration of the entire process from the incubation of membranes with ligands to the initiation of ATPase measurements was approximately 30 min. The recovery of the membrane protein in this procedure was consistently greater than 80% of the initial amounts. Trapping of 8-Azido [R-32P] ATP in the NucleotideBinding Site. Membranes (25 µg of membrane protein) were incubated in 0.05 mL of 50 mM Tris Cl buffer, pH 7.0, containing 10 µM (5 µCi) 8-azido[R-32P]ATP, 1 mM MgSO4, 100 µM vanadate, and 50 µM verapamil at room temperature for 5 min. Variation in the composition of preincubation mixtures was indicated in the Figure 4 legend. The incubation mixture was centrifuged at 13 000 rpm in an Eppendorf microfuge for 4 min at 4 °C. The pelleted membranes were resuspended in 0.5 mL of ice cold 50 mM Tris Cl buffer, pH 7.0, and centrifuged as above. The pelleted membranes were resuspended in 10 µL of ice cold 50 mM Tris Cl buffer, pH 7.0, and exposed to 254 nm of radiation using a handheld ultraviolet light (UVP Products, CA) for 10 min. The samples were then treated with equal volumes of doublestrength Laemmli disagregation buffer and run on the SDSPAGE followed by electroblotting onto PVDF membranes (18). The blotted PVDF membrane was first exposed to the phosphorimager screen and the 32P-labeled proteins were detected using Storm 840 Phosphorimager (Molecular Dynamics). The blots were then immunostained using the Pgpspecific C219 antibody in conjunction with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody to localize the Pgp. The peroxidase-labeled blot was developed by the
Vanadate Inhibition of the P-Glycoprotein ATPase enhanced chemiluminescence method, using the Amersham ECL kit (18). Other Methods. SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting of proteins were carried out as previously described (18). Protein in the membrane suspensions was determined by Coomassie Plus Protein Assay Reagent (Pierce, IL) according to the manufacturer’s instructions, using bovine serum albumin as a standard. Materials. Sodium orthovanadate, ATP for the ATPase assays, β,γ-methylene ATP, verapamil, vinblastine, colchicine, doxorubicin, rhodamine123, 5-fluorouracil, methotrexate, and ouabain were obtained from Sigma. Cyclosporin A was from Sandoz Research Institute (Hanover, NJ). ATP, ADP, GTP, GDP, UTP, UDP, CTP, and 2′-deoxynucleotides used in the inhibition studies were obtained from Pharmacia and Boehringer-Manneheim. 8-Azido[R-32P] ATP was obtained from Andotech, CA. Sf9 culture media were from the Lineberger Cancer Center Tissue Culture Facility at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. RESULTS Conditions for Stable Inhibition of the Pgp ATPase ActiVity. Initially, experiments were carried out to explore the effects of preincubation of Pgp with vanadate in the presence of various catalytic cycle participants on the drugstimulated ATPase function. Membranes containing the wild-type Pgp were preincubated in a 50 mM Tris buffer, pH 7.0, containing 100 µM vanadate, 10 mM MgSO4, 10 mM ATP, and 50 µM verapamil for 5 min, the excess ligands were removed, and the verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity in the resulting membranes was then determined as described under Materials and Methods. The results indicated that nearly 85% of the original Pgp ATPase activity was inhibited (data not shown). However, when any one of the 3 ligands, that is, Mg2+, ATP, and verapamil, was omitted from the above preincubation mixture, the Pgp ATPase activity was not inhibited by vanadate. Thus, although vanadate is a potent inhibitor of the Pgp ATPase activity, the above observations suggested that stable inhibition of the Pgp ATPase requires the presence of Mg2+, ATP, and verapamil. I have measured the residual verapamil-stimulated Pgp ATPase activity after the membranes containing wild-type Pgp were preincubated with 10 mM MgATP, 50 µM verapamil, and increasing concentrations of vanadate and washed as described under Materials and Methods. The results presented in Figure 1 indicate that vanadate inhibits the Pgp ATPase activity in a concentration-dependent manner, with an apparent Ki (50% inhibition) value of 10 µM. Pretreatment of Pgp with 100 µM vanadate alone or, in the presence of 10 mM MgATP did not inhibit the drugstimulated ATPase activity. In other experiments, we have also measured the verapamil-stimulated Pgp ATPase activity in the presence of increasing concentrations of vanadate and obtained a strikingly similar profile of Pgp ATPase inhibition, with 50% inhibition occurring at 7.5 µM vanadate (data not shown). Thus, similar vanadate inhibition profiles and Ki values in these two reactions, that is, inhibition of Pgp ATPase in the preincubations and in the ATP hydrolysis measurements, suggest that vanadate binds to a similar binding site in the Pgp molecule in both of these experimental procedures.
Biochemistry, Vol. 37, No. 42, 1998 14983
FIGURE 1: Vanadate concentration dependence of Pgp ATPase inhibition. Membranes containing wild-type Pgp (O) were incubated in a 50 mM Tris HCl buffer, pH 7.0, containing 10 mM MgATP, 50 µM verapamil, and increasing concentrations of sodium orthovanadate for 5 min, pelleted by centrifugation, and washed, and the verapamil-stimulated Pgp ATPase activity was determined as described under Materials and Methods. For reasons of clarity, only the ATPase activity of Pgp membranes pretreated with 10 mM MgATP and 100 µM vanadate was shown (b).
To further characterize the role of Mg2+, ATP, and verapamil in vanadate-induced stable inhibition of Pgp ATPase, these ligands were replaced with analogues, their effects were studied, and the results are summarized below. (i) Metal Ion Requirement in the Vanadate-Induced Pgp ATPase Inhibition. The Mg2+ cation in the preincubation mixtures in which the Pgp ATPase activity was strongly inhibited by vanadate, that is, the preincubation mixtures containing the ligands, Mg2+, ATP, and verapamil, was replaced with a variety of metal ions and the effects on verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity was measured (Table 1, upper panel). No Pgp ATPase inhibition was observed in the absence of Mg2+, or in the presence of added Na+. However, when Mg2+, Mn2+, or Co2+ was included in the preincubation mixtures, the ATPase activity was inhibited by approximately 85%, 50%, and 20%, respectively. In other experiments, it was found that verapamil-stimulated Pgp ATPase activity was dependent on a divalent cation and the activities obtained in the presence of Mn2+ and Co2+ were 50% and 20% of the maximal activity observed in the presence of Mg2+ (data not shown). Thus, the divalent metal ions that participate in the Pgp ATPase activation reaction were able to bring about vanadate-induced stable inhibition to a similar extent. These observations suggest that these metal ions are likely bound to the same binding site in the Pgp molecule in both the ATPase activation and the inhibition reactions. (ii) Nucleotide Requirement in the Vanadate-Induced Pgp ATPase Inhibition. To determine the role of nucleotide on the vanadate-induced Pgp ATPase inhibition, the membranes containing wild-type Pgp were incubated for 5 min in a 50 mM Tris Cl buffer, pH 7.0, containing 10 mM Mg2+, 0.1 mM vanadate, 50 µM verapamil, and a variety of nucleotides (10 mM). The membranes were washed, and the verapamilstimulated ATPase activities in the resulting membranes were
14984 Biochemistry, Vol. 37, No. 42, 1998
Rao
Table 1: Effect of Different Cations and Nucleotides on the Vanadate-Induced Pgp ATPase Inhibition ligand cationa none Na+ Mg2+ Mn2+ Co2+ nucleotidea ATP GTP UTP CTP β,γ-methylene ATP 2′deoxy ATP 2′deoxy GTP 2′deoxy TTP 2′deoxy CTP GDP UDP ADP ADP + Pi
inhibition of Pgp ATPase activity (%) 0
