creating strong, uniform, and enlightened postgraduate training schemes. I emphasize the postgraduate aspect because the first requirement is that environmental chemists be no less chemist than their peers if they are to serve the people well.
Controlling toxic chemids
A declaration of chemists Industrial waste reduction The points I have made are only a few of the many that could be brought and integrated pest managemem out. I have chosen them because, if brought to fruition, they seem the ones on which we can build a greater edifice. By Sondra Postel This leads me then to a fourth, and more general, proposal. I believe that An uneasy face-off between benefits what I have suggested demands that and risks marks the course of the chemchemical societies around the world ical age. The fashioning of tens of thoulead our profession toward a greater in- sands of new chemical compounds has volvement in environmental protection. led to a host of industrial and consumer Our societies are uniquely placed to do products-horn plastics and pesticides this and, in the process, serve not only to birth control pills and polyester fithe professional but the public interest bers. Yet events continue to reveal that as well. Through them, we must seek “better living through chemistry” to make an impact upon national gov- comes with serious costs. Pesticides ernments, and through their joint turn up in rural drinking-water wells. action, on international bodies. In a Underground plumes of toxic chemiword, our societies should aim for a cals emanate from abandoned waste place at the leading edge of environ- sites and contaminate city water s u p mental protection. plies. A gas leak at a chemical producIf there is a call to arms in my pre- tion plant in Bhopal, India, kills more sentation 1 am sure that my fellow than 2000 people. In many wayster of the residents of Iowa have drinkchemists will rise to the occasion. some dramatic, others insidiousThose of us from Great Britian were chemicals seem to be escaping society’s ing-water supplies contaminated with pesticides. The states with the best taught the power of a Declaration of control. The use of pesticides in agriculture monitoring programs have found the Intent. Would it not be appropriate, therefore, if today we were to subscribe and the disposal of industrial chemical greatest number of farm chemicals in wastes constitute two major pathways groundwater, suggesting that more exto a Declaration of Chemists that might by which people are inadvertently ex- tensive monitoring might reveal even run as follows: “Chemists of all nations readily ac- posed to toxics. These practices release more pervasive problems. Presumably, pesticide use makes cept the responsibility that in develop hundreds of millions of tons of potensense as long as the benefits outweigh ing and practicing our profession we tially hazardous substances into the enwill take all necessary steps to ensure vironment each year. the costs and risks. But this case is getting harder to make. Insects and weeds that the outcome of our work provides Pesticides account for only a small now reduce crop production by about the best possible environment for hu- share of the 70,000 chemicals commankind, and we will aim to achieve monly used, but they present some of 30%.apparently no less than before the this objective, both through our work the greatest hazards. Each year chemical age dawned. In response to heavier pesticide use, pests have and through the influence that can be 400,000 to 2 million pesticide poisonbrought to bear on other individuals ings occur worldwide, mostly among evolved mechanisms to detoxify and resist the chemical action designed to kill and on institutions, governments, and farmers in the Third World. Many chemicals restricted or outlawed by in- them. As a result, chemicals intended international bodies.’’ to enhance and stabilize agricultural There is ample evidence that we, dustrial countries are still widely used production have in many cases done aided by nature’s resilience, have the in developing countries. For example, ability to protect the environment in ret- DDT and benzene hexachloride are just the opposite. From conon growers in Nicaragua to potato growers on rospect. The challenge before us is to both banned in the United States and provide this service to humankind in much of Europe, yet these chemicals Long Island, the “pesticide treadmill” has taken a toll. As farmers apply inaccount for about three-quarters of total prospect. pesticide use in India. Studies in India’s creasing amounts of chemicals, the agricultural Punjab region have shown chemicals become less effective, raising production costs, depressing yields, that, through their mother’s milk, babies daily injest 21 times the amount of and increasing threats to health and the John H. Purnell, professor of physical these chemicals considered acceptable. environment. chemistry at University College, SwanIn many ways the situation with inOver the past few years, pesticide sea, has sewed as vice president of contamination of groundwater has dustrial chemical waste parallels the both the Royal Institute of Chemistry emerged as a major concern in the predicament with pesticides: Not only nnd lke Chemical Society. He has pubare current practices contaminating the farming regions of industrial countries. lished widely in areas of gas-phase In the United States routine agricultural environment and creating health risks, chain reactions. photochemistry, heter- practices have contaminated ground- but they are unsustainable over the long ogeneous catalysis, and chromatogra- water with 24 different pesticides in term. For many countries, cleaning up old more than 22 states. At least one-quarphy. 0013-936W8710922M)23$01.SO10
0 1987 American Chemical Society
Environ. Sci. Technol.. Val. 22. NO. 1, 1988 23
toxic waste sites will be among the highest priced items on their environmental agendas. Estimated cleanup expenditures in the United States range from $20 billion to $100 billion; the West German government expects to have to spend $10 billion over the next decade. Meanwhile, current practices are adding to the total risks because a large share of toxic waste still is disposed of in ways that contaminate the environment. Virtually everywhere, efforts to manage hazardous wastes are plagued by a scarcity of treatment and disposal facilities, strong public opposition to new facilities, and rising costs. Strategies that reduce pesticide use in agriculture and minimize waste generation in industry offer cost-effective approaches to decreasing risks from toxics. Such strategies differ fundamentally from current practice and require new ways of thinking. The quick fixes of pesticide spraying and end-ofpipe pollution control are replaced with new production systems aimed at reconciling economic piofits with environmental protection. In agriculture, a set of strategies known as Integated Pest Management (IPM) underlies most strategies to reduce pesticide use. IPM can involve, for example, the use of natural predators of pests, cropping patterns that suppress insects and weeds, and pestresistant crop varieties, as well as selective use of chemicals. The operating goal is not to eradicate insects and weeds, but to keep them below the level at which damaging economic losses oc-
24 Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 22,No. 1, 1988
cur. In a good IPM design, pesticides are used as a last resort rather than as the first and primary line of attack. Over the past decade, Brazil has advanced impressively toward IPM in its production of soybeans, one of its major export crops. Soybeans are plagued by several insect pests, which variously eat the plants’ leaves or suck nutrients out of the pods. Bolstered by strong government support, an IPM program was designed and tested with the help of U.S. scientists and gained quick acceptance in Brazil. By the early 1980s, about 30% of Brazilian soybean growers had adopted IPM. Insecticide use by those growers in 1982 was 8&90% below the level in 1975, the year before the program began. As of 1984, IF’M programs snpervised by U.S. Department of Agriculture personnel were under way in the United States for nearly 40 crops, collectively covering 11 million hectares, or about 8% of the nation’s harvested cropland. These programs have clearly benefited farmers economically. A survey, which studied nine agricultural commodities from 15 states (considering practice on only one crop per state), found that the farmers using IPM collectively earned $519 million more in profits than they would have otherwise. IPM programs, which are specifically aimed at cutting pesticide use rather than just boosting profits, have achieved some impressive results. U S . IF’M efforts, for example, were intensified in the early 1970s on cotton, grain sorghum, and peanuts. By 1982, in=-
ticide application per acre for these crops had dropped dramatically: 41 % for planted sorghum, 75% for cotton, and 81 % for peanuts. Insecticide use on corn and soybeans-crops that received minimal IPM-slightly increased. Strategies to reduce the amount of waste generated in industry require a change in thinking akin to that which rednced pesticide use. Companies are accustomed to dealing with waste only at the end of a manufacturing process, after the waste is generated. In contrast, waste reduction strategies focus on the production process itself, examining where wastes are generated and exploring how they can be reduced. They can involve simple measures-such as segregating wastes so they can more easily be recycled-or more complex onessuch as changing a manufacturing process, using different raw materials, and replacing hazardous products with safer substitutes. Numerous case studies of individual company efforts collectively attest to the technical feasibility and cost-effectiveness of waste reduction (see box). The Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co. (3M) probably has the longest standing commitment to waste reduction of any major corporation. Through its “Pollution Prevention Pays” program, launched in 1975, the company claims to have decreased its generation of waste by half, saving nearly $300 million. Waste reduction is a creative, ongoing endeavor that essentially equates waste with inefficiency. Its snccess hinges on top management making it a priority, for ideas can spring from all phases of a production process. 3M developed a videotape and brochure explaining the goals of its pollution prevention program to employees, and the company also holds award ceremonies to recognize those who develop innovative projects. Another company, USS Chemicals, rewards employees who develop waste-c.utting ideas with a share of the money thereby saved. As of 1986, the company had distributed $70,000 in rewards for projects that saved a total of $500,ooO. Current efforts in integrated pest management and industrial waste reduction, although clearly promising, only hint at their long-term potential for detoxifying the environment. With technologies and methods now available, pesticide use could probably be cut in half, and the creation of industrial waste cut by a third or more over the next decade. Successful efforts to date suggest that farmers and mannfacturers would benefit economically, and the public and the environment could receive better protection. Despite their benefits, however, nei-
ther IPM nor industrial waste reduction are coming into use very rapidly. Many farmers and manufacturers simply are not aware of alternative methods or feel they cannot afford to risk trying them. To bring these methods into widespread
use would require increased public conimitments to research and develop ment, demonstration projects, training, and education. These strategies provide a real chance to control toxics, and the time is ripe to seize that opportunity.
is a senior researcher Worldwatch Institute in Washington, D. C. She is the author ofthe Worldwatchrpporr - ~ ~ , i the , ~nxics i ~ ~~ r e a r ~r ~ Peshcidhi and hdusrriol Waste," from which this article is largely drawn. ~~
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National network for environmental education The Alliance for Environmental Education is forging the links
By John Paulk A wealth of environmental education materials and programs has been developed and implemented over the past 15 years, but no central mechanism yet exists for the coordination and dissemination of scch materials and programs. As a result, environmental literacy and the consequent ability of the public to make informed judgments on environmental concerns is uneven, according to the Alliance for Environmental M u cation (AEE). The AEE is an organization representing 33 membership organizations, including the American Chemical Society. To answer this deficiency and 10 broaden community participation in environmental education, AEE is establishing a National Network for Environmental Education. The network, which will consist of interactive environmental education centers, will invite existing centers to join their ranks and develop new centers at colleges and universities throughout the United States. These centers will provide expanded community-based environmental education programs aimed at schools and the general public. The successful resolution of tough environmental issues, such as those involving environmental management and the uses of natural resources, depends on an informed public, and education is a sure way to develop an understanding of environmental concerns. To be effective, an educational program of this type should include formal programs for school children and informal programs for the public at large.
The need for a network Environmental education research, programs, and information do exist. In0013~936X18710922~0025501 5010
'c'
John Puulk
dividual affiliates of the AEE and others offer a wide range of programs and materials on the topic-but for some people this information is not so easy to come by. In certain remote regions of the United States, these programs may not be widespread. In other areas, such as California, hundreds of these programs are readily available, but no clearinghouse exists to coordinate requests for information. Throughout the United States, environmental education specialists point to a need for a network to disseminate and develop environmental education resources. A national system that coordinates the existing educational resources and provides new resources and training where needed is essential to any serious strategy addressing the environmental concerns of our nation. The importance of environmental education received prominent recognition by a recent Presidential Commission on Americans and the Outdoors. In 1986 this commission reported that an "outdoor ethic" is a priority issue of the American public, that people believe citizens should learn to appreciate the
1987 American Chemical Society
environment and respect it, and that residents of each community should decide how best to address these issues in their location. The network is designed to foster such respect and to support local amroaches to local environmental .. concerns. In 1986 the United Nations called for partnerships between industry and environmental organizations to address pressing environmental issues. The AEE, with its broad range of 33 affiliates representing conservation organizations, educational institutions, corporations, and organized labor, is such a partnership (see box).
The network plan AEEs long-range plans call for the network to be completed by 1997. In its initial phase, the alliance selected the locations for its first five centers in 1987, primarily in a IO-state area comprising Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. This Missouri basin area was targeted because of its central geographic location and a demonstrated interest in the program from potential host universities. Early success story The national network for environmental education is modeled after an environmental-energy education network of university-based centers that was developed in the seven-state Tennessee River Valley region and is sponsored by the Tennessee Valley Authority. The 13 centers within the Tennessee Valley network offer teacher training, program development and dissemination, regional outreach services (including technical assistance and workshops), and research opportunities. Environ SCI Techno1 ,Val 22. NO 1 , 1988 25
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