Excess Heat and Calorimetric Calculation ... - ACS Publications

Chapter 7

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Excess Heat and Calorimetric Calculation: Evidence of Coherent Nuclear Reactions in Condensed Matter at Room Temperature 1

2

A. De Ninno , E. Del Giudice , and A. Frattolillo

1

1

ΕΝΕΑ, Centro Ricerche Frascati, C.P. 65-00044 Frascati, Roma, Italy INFN Milano, Via Celoria 16, 20133 Milano, Italy 2

The aim of this paper is to show that the existence of "cold" nuclear fusion in the palladium lattice cannot be just an irrelevant oddity since it derives from the peculiar interplay of electromagnetic and matter fields. Hence its understanding requires the conceptual frame established by Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). Here we sketch a conceptual path starting from the knowledge of unexplained facts known for decades. Along this path we come to the proposal of a new field of research initiated by the experiments performed by Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons (1) from 1984 to 1989. We conclude our review with the description of the experiments we did in 2002 where we observed simul taneously both excess heat and He production in an electrolytic cell with heavy water and a Pd cathode. 4

© 2008 American Chemical Society In Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Sourcebook; Marwan, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2008.

127

128


Background The debate on cold fusion has been sometimes represented to the public as a quarrel between "true believers" (supporting the cause of this peculiar kind of nuclear phenomenon out of an attitude of rebellion against the prevailing paradigm) and the "true unbelievers" (acting as "defensores fidei", struggling against the people who try to subvert the scientific rationality). This misrepresentation has obscured the real scientific roots of the research approach that has brought some scientists to conceive the point of view that nuclear reactions could occur inside condensed matter, in particular within metal lattices at room temperature. The usual objections against cold fusion are based on the tenet that physics of nuclei embedded in a lattice should not differ from physics of nuclei in vacuo, in the empty space. This statement is known as Asymptotic Freedom (AF). As a matter of fact, the space-time scale of nuclear phenomena is smaller by six orders of magnitude than the space-time scale of the lattice. Let us assume that nuclear reactions among deuterium nuclei d could occur within the lattice as physical events localized at definite sites. Consider in particular the reaction 4

d + d —> compound_excited_nucleus_ He —> final_products The energy release from the compound nucleus in order to relax to a stationary state should follow the Heisenberg uncertainty principle ΔΕ χ AT~ h. Since AE-24 MeV t h e n a r - l(T s. Actually the lattice could play a role in the decay of the compound nucleus only if the energy released by the nuclear reaction should involve several lattice components within the decay time AT . However, this is impossible since the velocity of the energy transfer required to overcome the distance between first neighbors in a metal lattice, about 3 Â, would exceed the speed of light c by a factor of 10 . This consideration would rule out any possibility of a nuclear reaction occurring in a lattice according to a dynamics different than in vacuo. However, there is a phenomenon, well known in nuclear physics as the Môssbauer effect (2), that seems to defy the above argument. According to the Môssbauer effect, a crystal made up of nuclei able to exhibit γ-decay recoils as a whole when this decay occurs. It behaves as an infinitely stiff lattice where independent movements of the components during the decay are forbidden (5). According to the data available (4\ as many as 2> 2H requires 4.48 eV, whereas 2H -> 2H + 2e requires 27.2 eV). A third point emerges from the very early literature on the subject of fusion (10, 11). By investigating the fusion process d+d-+t (tritium)+/f in a Wilson cloud chamber, a significant number of tracks angled at 180° was observed; under the experimental conditions the tracks should have exhibited an angle of 160°! This result would suggest the occurrence of fusion between species which had already lost most energy in the target! The above topics suggest that collective phenomena could play a relevant role in our story. Recently Widom and Larsen (12) have suggested a possible role for weak interactions in cold fusion. They invoke collective proton layer oscillations on the surface of palladium able to produce a field capable of "dressing" electrons with an enhanced mass. Such a renormalization via electromagnetic fluctuations enhances the capture probability and the consequent low momentum neutron production that can induce a chain of reactions in the neighboring condensed matter. However, according to the universally accepted principles of physics, it is impossible to dissipate energies of MeVs simply by "heating" the lattice without any emission of very energetic +

2

f

In Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions Sourcebook; Marwan, J., et al.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 2008.


130 fragments that have not been observed in these phenomena. So cold fusion cannot be a localized event but implies the revision of some of our implicitly assumed facts about condensed matter. In 1989, one of us (Del Giudice), together with the late Giuliano Preparata and Tullio Bressani (13), investigated the system in the context of QED. This approach is based on a critical analysis of the ground state of QED (3). The ground state in condensed matter involves the atoms/molecules of a macroscopic piece of matter in an intricate dynamical interplay mediated by a large (classical) electromagnetic field. In such a scenario the AF is not a general property of such coherent ground state because the e.m field fills the vacuum among the particles inside the matter and interacts strongly with the charges. Let us briefly summarize the main points of this dynamics.

Coherent Dynamics in Cold Fusion Experimental reports on cold fusion show the following facts, that appear to be "strange" in the conventionalframeworkof nuclear physics: •

At room temperature and pressure, under suitable electrochemical conditions, a rate of nuclear fusions d-d is reported that exceeds by 60 orders of magnitude the rate η of tunneling below the Coulomb barrier in a D molecule (η~10" fusions per pair of deuterons). The fusions predominantly give rise to He, with a low fraction of events belonging to the channel tritium+proton and a very few events neutron+He . 90

2

•

4

3

These experimental reports could be addressed in the QEDframeworkon the basis of the following concepts (3, 8, 10): 1.

2.

There is a first element which is able to increase the rate η of fusion by about 40 orders of magnitude. In a Pd crystal at room temperature the delectron shells are in a coherent regime within "coherence domains" (CD) as large as a few hundred Angstroms. Electron shells oscillate in tune with a coherent electromagnetic field trapped in the CD, whosefrequencyis in the range of soft X-rays. The coherent plasma of the d-shells is so inflexible, that, at selected points in the lattice, it produces permanent lumps of negative charge able to catalyze nuclear fusion in a way akin to the muon catalyzed fusion. This catalysis amounts to an increase in the barrier penetration factor among deuterons by about 40 orders of magnitude. However, this enhancement is not enough to justify the fusion yields observed by the experimentalists. As discussed in Ref. (5), hydrogen filling the metal enters into a coherent state when x=H(D)/Pd>0J. The corresponding CDs have a size between 1 and 10 μιη and oscillations are tuned with a self trapped electromagnetic field, whosefrequencyis in the IR interval.


131 3.

As discussed in Ref. (3\ in the case of deuterium, when the loading ratio x>\, the above coherent state induces a further magnification of the probability of tunneling of deuterons across the Coulomb barrier, thus allowing the large number of fusions needed to produce the observed large amounts of excess heat. The excess energy is also released in a time shorter than that required to split the "boiling" He nucleus by the nuclear dynamics (about 10" s), thus preventing a massive emission of neutrons and tritium (13, 14). Therefore, the main nuclear ash of the process is a He atom. This acceleration of the rate of energy release from a coherent system is the consequence of the fact that the coherence (see Refs. (3) and (5)) increases the value of the coupling constant e (the electric charge) to e^ÎN , where Ν is the number of the components of the coherent system, so that the time scales are shortened by a factor \[N . Since at x=l the density of deuterons N/Ç is 7χ10 cm" and the volume of the coherence domain has been 4

21


4

22

3

10

estimated to be 10" cm (see Ref. (3)), the number of deuterons per coherence domain can be estimated as 7>l x1

6.1±0.8xl0' -2±3xl0 4±3xl0 8

9

u

4

8.1±0.2xlO -2±3xl0"

M

1.37±0.04xl0

25.5±0.8 14

-0.2±0.1 1.82±0.03

Are Nuclear Transmutations, Observed at Low Energies, Consequences of QED Coherence? Many reports (33) point to the existence of nuclear transmutations occurring in solid metal lattices when they are loaded with hydrogen isotopes beyond a threshold. Elements absent before the loading were found thereafter, and the natural relative abundances of the isotopes of the host metal were modified. The high energies required cannot be produced in any conceptual frame where phonon excitations only are present. A major conceptual difficulty arises from the large Coulomb barrier between the nuclei, whose overcoming would require large amounts of energy. Actually, only the fusion of nuclei having Z=l can be made possible by the enhancement mechanisms due to coherence, whereas, for Z>1, since the dependence upon Ζ of the Gamov penetration factor is exponential, the probability of the barrier crossing is negligible. The only possible agents for nuclear transmutations should be in our case the uncharged ones: neutrons or electromagnetic fields. Leaving aside for now the possibility of having thermal neutrons in the lattice as suggested by Widom and Larsen (12) let us direct our attention to the field of 24 MeV lasting in the lattice 10" s, as explained above. Almost sixty years ago the phenomenon of Giant Dipole Resonance, GDR, was discovered (34-36) and interpreted in theframeworkof the Nuclear Shell Model. The cross-section for γ photons scattering off nuclei exhibits a wide maximum between 14 and 16 MeV and is connected with the excitation of quantum collective modes in nuclei. Goldhaber & Teller (36) have thoroughly analyzed the phenomenon of GDR, showing that the peak energy actually coincides with the binding energy of two closed shells in a nucleus. In a certain sense, under the γ field, the nucleus enters a vibrational state capable of breaking the binding, thus releasing a single nucleus or full shells. This is standard textbook nuclear physics. Now we consider a related proposal, daring but not unreasonable. The event of fusion, as discussed in Ref. (14), releases its energy as an electromagnetic excitation of the coherence domain of deuterons, lasting for a time shorter than 10" sec. The full amount of the energy produced by the fusion (24 MeV) is then released to the coherence domains of the Pd 21

21




4

He yield (atoms/s)

He

He atoms in storage volume

4

PowerfromHe yeield (P (mW)

4


4

Cr

Time elapsed from the beginning of electrolysis (hour) He

Figure 8. a) He content of the gas mixture inside the storage volume, b) excess power P derived from helium yield and c) average excess calorimetric power P - The data are shown as a function of time, allowing us to check for coincidence. (Reproducedfrom reference 32. Copyright 2003 ANS.)

Ο Ο

CO (D

-a 6,

is


148 electrons, giving rise to oscillations at lowerfrequency.The energy, and thus the frequency of the electromagnetic excitation of the coherence domain of deuterons, could match for a short time, whose order of magnitude is less than 10" sec, the interval of GDR, thus giving rise to collective excitations of nuclei present within the volume of the coherence domain, namely the nucleus of Pd. These excitations could produce a number of nuclear reactions, including the "unscrewing" of the two closed shells that are the components of the Pd nucleus and correspond to Ni and Ar nuclei. In order to check this daring hypothesis, we propose the following experiment (57). There is a preliminary indication (38) that N i nuclei may be present in cathodes subsequent to cold fusion. We propose to look for nuclear transmuta tions of Pd according to a probable scheme of a split of the nucleus into closed shells, i.e., the anomalous production of argon isotopes as partner nuclei of Ni in a possible Pd fission process. The closed shells that could appear in a Pd nucleus (Z=46) have the following magic numbers: 28 protons (Ni) and 20 neutrons ( Ar) which cor respond to the reactions:


21

38

104

102

66

38

Pdnfield-> Ni+ Ar 64

38

Pd+y field-> Ni+ Ar

A detailed calculation is needed of the interaction parameters of the coupling of the extended γ-ray field (which is not a single photon!) with nuclei. However the existence of such extended γ-ray fields is a necessary consequence of the coherent theory of cold fusion. Such fields appear, in the framework of accepted principles of quantum physics, as the likeliest engine to give rise to nuclear transmutations in the metal lattice at room temperature.

Conclusions The existence of an anomalous excess heat produced in Pd cathodes during the electrolysis of heavy water has been proved by several experimenters around the world with different (sometimes very different) experimental procedures, and it has been approached by many theoreticians starting from different (sometimes very different) descriptions of condensed matter. However, in the last fifteen years, some fundamental points have been agreed upon by the physicists involved in cold fusion research: a) the existence of a threshold in the deuterium loading in palladium (generally assumed to be necessary even though some scientists consider it not to be sufficient); b) the absence of the yield of neutrons and tritium, correlated to the heat measured, as foreseen by the theory of nuclear fusion in vacuum; c) the presence of He as nuclear ash of the process; d) the existence of other nuclear reactions, such as transmutations of heavy elements, in condensed matter at room temperature; e) the need for 4



149 collaboration in the field of condensed matter in order to cope with this new phenomenology. The next question is: "May such a phenomenon be envisaged, in the near future, as a new source of energy?" The main efforts of the "cold fusion community" have been devoted to clarifying the physical or chemical-physical environment in which the phenomenon takes place and convincing the scientific community of its reality. However, it could be wise to start considering this question. In order to create a device able to produce significant amounts of energy for civilian uses, it is mandatory to know: a) the highest temperature reached by the palladium during the ignition (the extremely high-density power - 1-10 kW/cm - evaluated by the experiments poses severe limits to the design of the device); b) "out equilibrium" calorimetry in order to evaluate and correctly catch all the heat produced, since the heat emitted at very high temperature is mainly emitted in the form of radiation; c) the duration of a possible device for energy production which would be subjected not only to the possible "burning" of the cathode but also to its possible contamination due to several cycles of loadingdeloading when the device is switched on and off. It is clear that, from an engineering point of view, we are just launching the challenge, but the peculiarity of this possible source of energy is meaningful. Cold fusion is, actually, a very high-density source of energy, very different from fossil fuels and also from the other known nuclear energy (fission, thermonuclear fusion) devices, which require large-scale power plants. This means that its best use will be for non-centralized production of energy right at the site where it will be consumed, thus reducing the cost of energy losses in distribution and thermal waste, i.e., the fact that a significant part of energy produced in a conventional plant is subsequently released as waste heat into the environment. Moreover, the easy management of fuel (water), materials (it is reasonable to think that palladium metal could be replaced by special Pd based material or, better, by another more abundant and cheap element such as nickel or Ni compounds), and waste ( He) makes cold fusion a promising energy source for the future, for people willing to take the challenge. 3

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