Anal. Chem. 2004, 76, 3269-3284
Fiber-Optic Chemical Sensors and Biosensors Otto S. Wolfbeis
Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany Review Contents Books and Reviews Sensors for Gases, Vapors, and Humidity Ion Sensors Sensors for Specific Chemical Compounds Biosensors Applications Sensing Schemes Materials Literature Cited
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This biannual review covers the time period from January 2002 to January 2004 and is written in continuation of previous reviews (A1, A2). An electronic search in SciFinder and MedLine resulted in 532 hits. Since the number of citations in this review is limited, a stringent selection had to be made. Priority was given to fiberoptic sensors (FOS) for defined chemical, environmental, and biochemical significance and to new schemes and materials. The review does not include (a) FOS that obviously have been rediscovered; (b) FOS for nonchemical species such as temperature, current and voltage, stress, strain, and displacement, for structural integrity (e.g., of constructions), liquid level, and radiation; and (c) FOS for monitoring purely technical processes such as injection molding, extrusion, or oil drilling, even though these are important applications of optical fiber technology. Fiber optics serve analytical sciences in several ways. First, they enable optical spectroscopy to be performed on sites inaccessible to conventional spectroscopy, over large distances, or even on several spots along the fiber. Second, fiber optics, in being waveguides, enable less common methods of interrogation, in particular evanescent wave spectroscopy. Fibers are available now with transmissions over a wide spectral range. Major fields of applications are in medical and chemical analysis, molecular biotechnology, marine and environmental analysis, industrial production monitoring and bioprocess control, and the automotive industry. Note: In this article, sensing refers to a continuous process, while probing refers to single-shot testing. FOS are based on either direct or indirect (indicator-based) sensing schemes. In the first, the intrinsic optical properties of the analyte are measured, for example its refractive index, absorption, or emission. In the second, the color or fluorescence of an immobilized indicator, label, or any other optically detectable bioprobe is monitored. Active current areas of research include advanced methods of interrogation such as time-resolved or spatially resolved spectroscopy, evanescent wave and laser-assisted spectroscopy, surface plasmon resonance, and multidimensional data acquisition. In recent years, fiber bundles also have been employed for purposes of imaging, for biosensor arrays (along with encoding), or as arrays of nonspecific sensors whose individual signals may be processed via artificial neural networks. 10.1021/ac040049d CCC: $27.50 Published on Web 05/20/2004
© 2004 American Chemical Society
This review is divided into sections on books and reviews (A), specific sensors for gases and vapors (B), ions and salinity (C), miscellaneous inorganic and organic chemical species (D), and biosensors (E), followed by sections on application-oriented sensor types (F), new sensing schemes (G), and new sensor materials (H), respectively. BOOKS AND REVIEWS A remarkable review focuses on aspects of sensor sensitivity and sensor performance (“quality”) (A3). In the author’s opinion, remarkable progress has been made in terms of designing and improving sensing schemes, but the comparability of trace analytical data produced (especially in different laboratories) has not been improved to the same degree. It is stated that it is mandatory to validate the performance of (bio)sensors by the same scrutiny as are more traditional analytical instruments, e.g., by applying established reference methods. The size of certain FOCs is approaching the nanometer dimension. Following early approaches on ion nanosensors based on measurement of luminescence decay time (A4), fiber-optic nanosensors (in fact nanoprobes) have been introduced using antibodies (A5). The article covers general information on biosensors, a description of the fabrication methods and detection systems, and applications in single-cell analysis. The fundamentals of optical chemical sensors and biosensors are covered in a respective chapter in a textbook (A6). Narayanaswamy and Wolfbeis have edited a book on optical sensors for industrial, environmental, and clinical applications (A7). Fluorescence-based fiber-optic arrays represent a universal platform for sensing as they are easily integrated into a multitude of different sensing schemes (A8, A9). The arrays are made up from a multitude of single sensors, from relatively straightforward pH sensors to more complex ones including artificial olfaction sensors, high-density oligonucleotide arrays, and high-throughput cell-based arrays. Imaging fiber bundles composed of thousands of fused optical fibers are the basis for an optically connected, individually addressable parallel sensing platform. Ligler and Rowe-Taitt have edited a book on optical biosensors (A10). As far as fiber optics are concerned, the chapters on fiberoptic biosensors (written by Rowe-Taitt and Ligler), on biosensors based on measurement of fluorescence decay time (by Thompson), on evanescent wave fiber-optic biosensors (by Rowe-Taitt, Ligler, and Phil), and on optrode-based fiber-optic biosensors (by Biran and Walt) are most relevant. Reviews have appeared on analytical methods (including sensors) for aflatoxins (A11); on biosensors for DNA sequencing (A12); on fluorometric DNA biosensors (A13); on DNA aptamers as new recognition elements for biosensors (A14); on optical biosensors for food pathogen detection (A15) using fiber-optic Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 76, No. 12, June 15, 2004 3269
tips, optical biosensors with particles, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and optical sensor membranes; on fluorescence-based fiber optic arrays thatsin the authors' opinionsrepresent a universal platform for sensing (A16); on in situ fluorescence-based probes being considered as useful tools for noninvasive bioprocess monitoring (A17), on applications and new developments in fiberoptic fluorescence spectroscopic techniques for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (A18); on multiparametric fluorescence techniques based on spectral change, intensity, lifetime, and polarization; this versatility is said to pave the way for analyzing multicomponent mixtures without separation procedures; on nanobiosensors that can “probe the sanctuary of individual living cells” (A19); and on mid-IR fiber-optic sensors in general (A20). Lopez-Higuera has edited a handbook on optical fiber sensors (A21) that contains chapters on fiber-optic biosensors (written by Rowe-Taitt and Ligler); on fiber-optic sensors for environmental applications (written by Holst and Mizaikoff); on biomedical fiberoptic sensors (written by Baldini and Mignani); on gas spectroscopy techniques for optical fiber sensors (written by Culshaw), on broadband superfluorescent fiber-optic sources (written by the editor); and on optical noses that can mimic a vertebrate’s olfaction capability via sensor arrays giving typical signal pattern (written by Walt and Stitzel); among others. The progress made during the past five years in the field of optical fiber biosensors was reviewed (A22), as was the use of advanced luminescent labels, probes, and beads in (fiber-optic) luminescence bioassay and imaging (A23). Fiber-optic gas sensing using absorption spectroscopy is a kind of evergreen and the present state has been reviewed (A24). Spectroscopic methods include open-path fiber-coupled microoptic cells, evanescent wave sensors using D-shaped optical fibers and holey fibers, systems using broadband sources and laser sources, techniques for sensitivity enhancement and noise reduction, and various multipoint gas detection systems. Medical applications of Raman spectroscopy and the principles to clinical implementations such as early detection of cancers, monitoring of the effect of various agents on the skin, determination of atherosclerotic plaque, and rapid identification of pathogenic microorganisms also were reviewed (A25). Finally, the potential of fiber-optic (mainly Bragg grating) sensors was discussed by Rao (A26). SENSORS FOR GASES, VAPORS, AND HUMIDITY This section covers all gaseous species including their solutions. Hydrogen remains to be a target gas in fiber-optic sensing simply because of the intrinsic safety of FOS. A scheme for distributed hydrogen sensing using evanescent wave spectroscopy along with platinum-supported tungsten trioxide thin films that change color on exposure to hydrogen has been described (B1). The sensor shows fast response to 1 vol % H2 and can be operated in the optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) mode to enable the localization of hydrogen leakage points. In closely related work, the sensor was shown to work even at very low temperature and to be useful for detection of hydrogen in fuel cell cars (B2). Low-cost fiber sensors, also intended for use in H-fueled passenger vehicles, were reported (B3). An optical fiber SPR sensor was developed for the detection of hydrogen leakages (B4). A thin 3270
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layer of palladium metal deposited on the bare core of a multimode fiber was used as the transducer whose resonance angle changes on exposure to hydrogen. The sensor has good detection limits (0.8%) and is acceptably fast (3-5 min) Gaseous hydrocarbons can be sensed via sapphire fiber sensors coated with a thin layer of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (B5). A range of hydrocarbons, from hexane to pentadecane, was analyzed at 2930 cm-1 using both fiber-coupled FT-IR spectroscopy and a modular prototype system. A 64-point fiber-optic methane sensor installed on a landfill site was described that works under harsh conditions but is reported to perform satisfactorily, detecting methane in the range of 50 ppm to 100% (B6). Hydrocarbon leaks also may be located by an OTDR fiber-optic chemical sensor (B7). The distributed sensing system is built from a polymer-clad silica fiber adapted to an OTDR setup. OTDR measurements allow locating and detecting chemicals by measuring the time delay between short light pulses entering the fiber and discrete changes in the backscatter signals that are caused by local extraction of hydrocarbons into the fiber cladding. Distributed sensing of pure liquid hydrocarbons (HC) and aqueous HC solutions with a miniOTDR (operated at 850 nm) and adapted to sensing fibers of up to 1-km length could be demonstrated. A simple gas cell was designed for determination of methane (B8). The length of the light beam interacting with methane is 4 times the physical length of the optical cell, thus resulting in much better limits of detection. An in situ multiplexing long-path fiberoptic remote sensing system for methane that uses a single laser source was described (B9). It can measure the spatial distribution of methane via frequency modulation spectroscopy and harmonic detection. Using a fiber-optic splitter, the remote monitoring system can employ a single laser source to obtain multicenter measurements in the near-IR region. Optical sensors for oxygen based on dynamic quenching of luminescence have had particular success in the past years, and they are now being improved (albeit not in principle) and adapted to specific problems. A plastic fiber-based optical sensor array has been introduced for the in situ measurement of ground air oxygen concentrations in a lignite mine tailing affected by acid mine drainage formation (B10). The instrument evaluates the oxygendependent change of the luminescence lifetime of an oxygen indicator using a phase modulation technique. Multiposition sensing of dissolved oxygen has been reported that is based on room-temperature phosphorescence quenching (B11). Both triplet lifetimes and phosphorescence intensities were measured and applied to multiposition analysis of water-dissolved oxygen in four different locations. Water-dissolved oxygen in shake flasks was continuously monitored via a sensor patch placed inside the flask (B12). The sensor signal remained unaffected during 80 autoclaving cycles, which suggests its multiusage. Specifically, cultivation of Corynebacterium glutamicum was studied and optimized. An interesting new scheme for remote determination of oxygen operates at millimeter wave frequencies (B13). A 9.5-10.5-GHz signal from a yttrium iron garnet is carried via an IR laser down a 1-km fiber-optic cable. The sixth harmonic of the transmitted microwave signal is generated directly with an active sextrupler, which permits working in the 57-66-GHz band. Absorption measurements are undertaken using a Fabry-Perot cavity absorption cell. Oxygen can be quantified using the 57-66- and 114-
128-GHz bands. Water vapor in air also can be quantified between 5 × 10-5 and 0.025 volume fraction in air. A highly sensitive device for probing ozone has been introduced that is based on an glass optical waveguide (B14). The waveguide is coated with a starch film incorporating potassium iodide that (irreversibly) turns blue on exposure to ozone. Ando et al. have shown that thin films of poly(N-methylaniline) undergo a reversible color change if contacted with gaseous ozone (B15). The films showed changes of optical absorbance at 500-800 nm in the presence of 50-100 ppm ozone in air at room temperature. The effect is partially reversible. A multipoint fiber-optic detection system for carbon monoxide and oxygen based on intracavity spectroscopy was reported that uses fiber Bragg gratings as wavelength-selective cavity mirrors and a tunable filter to tune the operating wavelength to the wavelength of a selected Bragg grating (B16). The Bragg wavelengths of the gratings are chosen to be aligned to different absorption lines of a gas or gases, allowing gas concentrations at multiple locations to be determined. Several gases have been determined simultaneously in combustion gases by using a tunable diode laser IR sensor (B17). In addition to carbon monoxide and oxygen, water vapor and gas temperature were sensed in industrial furnaces. Water-dissolved carbon dioxide was quantified with a reservoirtype capillary microsensor (B18). A pH indicator in the form of its ion pair with a quaternary ammonium base and a buffer in an ethyl cellulose matrix, all placed at the tip of an optical fiber, served as the sensing chemistry. The dynamic range is between 1 and 20 hPa pCO2. The response time is 15 s, and the detection limit is 1 hPa pCO2. The sensitivity of fiber-optic CO2 sensors utilizing indicator dyes was studied once more (B19). Gastric CO2 can be monitored with optical fibers of similar design (B20), and the results compare favorably with those obtained with a commercial (non-fiber-optic) instrument. A sol-gel-based optical carbon dioxide sensor that employs dual luminophore internal referencing and is intended for application in food packaging technology was described (B21). A fluorescent pH indicator was immobilized in a hydrophobic organically modified silica matrix, along with cetyltrimethylammonium hydroxide as an internal buffer. Fluorescence is measured in the phase domain by means of the dual luminophore referencing scheme. The resolution is 55% of the maximally possible signal that can be obtained from the fully matched target duplex. Design guidelines for optimizing the collection of free propagating fluorescence for capillary waveguide sensors for the detection of nucleic acids were discussed (E19). Evanescent wave excitation of the coating layer containing a DNA probe is achieved by using a fiber-optic ring arrangement for coupling light directly into the capillary wall. The central part of the connector is used for injecting a DNA or RNA target into the capillary channel. In situ hybridization has been used to detect target molecules at a concentration of 30 pg mL-1. Another DNA hybridization assay has been reported that is based on evanescent fluorescence excitation and collection (E20). A tapered fiber-optic probe is used onto which is immobilized a single-stranded, synthetic oligonucleotide. Hybridization is detected with a fluorescently labeled signaling probe. In another type of DNA sensor, the intercalating dye thiazole orange is used for detection of hybridization (E21). Substantial fluorescence enhancement of thiazole orange occurs when the dye intercalates into double-stranded DNA. Direct selective detection of genomic DNA from coliform is possible by using a fiber-optic biosensor (E22). Several oligomers were covalently immobilized on fibers,
and hybridization was detected. Nonselective adsorption of noncomplementary oligonucleotides was found to occur at a significantly faster rate than hybridization of complementary oligomers in all cases, but this did not inhibit selective interactions between immobilized DNA and cDNA. A gas-phase multiple sensor array and a method for monitoring a PCR reaction for detection of DNA in real time were described in a patent (E23). A sensitive and specific assay for parallel analysis of mRNA isoforms on a fiber-optic microarray platform was introduced (E24). The method permits analysis of mRNA transcripts without prior RNA purification or cDNA synthesis. Using an endogenously expressed viral transcript as a model, the authors demonstrate that the assay readily detects mRNA isoforms from as little as 10-100 pg of total cellular RNA or directly from a few cells. Zeptomole detection limits were achieved with a high-density fiber-optic genosensor microsphere array (E25). A random array composed of oligonucleotide-functionalized 3.1-µm-diameter microspheres on the distal face of a 500-µm etched imaging fiber was monitored for binding to fluorescently labeled complementary DNA sequences. Specific hybridization was observed for each of three sequences in an array yielding a detection limit of 10-21 mol (equivalent to about 600 DNA molecules). A fiber-optic biosensor has been designed for the detection of E. coli O157:H7. Following PCR, the presence of at least 103 cfu mL-1 E. coli O157:H7 can be detected in a sample in less than 10 h (E26). The same strain can be analyzed in ground beef, chicken carcass, and lettuce samples with an immunomagnetic chemiluminescence fiber-optic biosensor (E27). Samples inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 were first centrifuged and suspended in buffered peptone water and then incubated with anti-E. coli O157 antibodycoated magnetic beads and peroxidase-labeled anti-E. coli O157 antibodies to form sandwich complexes. The number of E. coli O157:H7 cells was determined by collecting the peroxidasecatalyzed chemiluminescence signal from the bead surface through a fiber-optic light guide. The detection limits are between 300 and 500 cfu mL-1. Genomic target sequences from E. coli can be detected via fluorescent intercalating agents such as SYBR 101 that can report hybridization events with target strands (E28). The biosensors were able to detect genomic targets at a picomole level in a time of a few minutes, and dozens of cycles of use have been demonstrated. A fiber-optic biosensor reported to be capable of monitoring streptococci in human saliva (E29) utilizes evanescent wave spectroscopy to monitor a bacterial-mediated biochemical reaction. A short length of the fiber cladding is removed, the core surface is coated with a thin film of porous sol-gel, and the streptococcimediated reaction with sucrose is monitored using a photosensitive indicator immobilized within the porous sol-gel. A rather related paper also appeared (E30). Bacterial biosensors have been designed for determination of environmental pollutants. Thus, a biosensor was developed for the detection of tributyltin using a bioluminescent recombinant E. coli::luxAB strain (E31), and a strain of microorganisms from A. eutrophus was genetically engineered by inserting a luxCDABE operon from V. fischeri that is triggered by copper ion (E32). The sensitivity of a gas biosensor was improved by improved immobilization of a recombinant bioluminescent bacterium (E33). The genetically engineered bioluminescent bacterium (lac::luxAnalytical Chemistry, Vol. 76, No. 12, June 15, 2004
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CDABE) was immobilized to develop a whole cell biosensor for the detection of toxic gases. The toxicity of chemicals can be evaluated through the bioluminescent reaction as it reduces in intensity when the cells experience toxic or lethal conditions. The biosensor was fabricated by immobilization in a solid agar medium, and the vapors tested include those of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene. A cell array biosensor was developed (E34) that is composed of thousands of individual bacteria cells expressing a reporter gene that responds to the presence of environmental pollutants. The array was produced by immobilizing the cells in wells on an imaging fiber bundle. Each microwell was used to accommodate a single living bacterium, allowing simultaneous monitoring of the genetic responses of all the cells in the array. This platform appears to provide a powerful tool for various environmental and industrial applications. Using a chemiluminescent fiber-optic biosensor and magnetic particles, a simple, sensitive, and rapid method to determine Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin A in military rations was developed (E35). The assay was compared to the Analyte 2000, a commercial fluorescent fiber-optic biosensor. The “sensitivities” () limits of detection) of chemiluminescent and fluorescent immunoassays were 1 ng, significantly lower than the levels needed to cause illness. Alternatively, staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) may be detected with a miniature fiber-optic surface plasmon resonance sensor (E36). The sensor is based on spectral interrogation of surface plasmons in a miniature sensing element based on a side-polished single-mode optical fiber with a thin metal overlayer. The surface of the sensor is functionalized with a covalently cross-linked double layer of antibodies against SEB. Nanogram quantitities of SEB per milliliter of sample can be detected in less than 10 min. Volatile products of the metabolism of (toxic) bacteria on food and other biological samples can be recognized by gas sensors and spectral footprints (E37). The sensor yields a gas “signature” or “spectral footprint ” of the volatile products, which can be compared to the data of a library. The method can be used to detect spoilage of food and to identify microorganisms, in particular pathogens. An optical fiber biosensor based on anomalous reflection of a gold surface was demonstrated for the system streptavidin-biotin (E38). The presence of a transparent surface layer on gold produces a large decrease in the reflectivity of the gold surface due to multiple reflections in the surface layer. This anomalous reflection has been exploited to monitor the adsorption of octadecanethiol to the gold surface and the binding of streptavidin onto a biotin-labeled monomolecular layer on gold. Furthermore, gold in the form of colloidal particles was used to modify the surface of an optical fiber to make them amenable to chemical and biochemical sensing (E39). The unclad portion of an optical fiber was modified with self-assembled gold colloids (SAGC). The optical properties and, hence, the attenuated total reflection spectrum of SAGC changes with the refractive index of its environment. The SAGC was functionalized with biotin in order to study the binding of streptavidin, which can be detected in concentrations as low as ∼10-10 mol L-1. Hence, is appears to be suitable for label-free detection of affinity events. Colorimetric resonant reflection can be applied as a direct biochemical assay technique (E40). A colorimetric resonant 3276
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diffractive grating surface is used as a surface binding platform. An optical structure is used that, if illuminated with white light, is designed to reflect only a single wavelength. When biomolecules are attached to the surface, the reflected wavelength (color) is shifted due to the change of the optical path of light that is coupled into the grating. By linking receptor molecules to the grating surface, complementary binding molecules can be detected. The readout system consists of a white light lamp that illuminates a small spot of the grating at normal incidence through a fiber-optic probe and a spectrometer that collects the reflected light through a second fiber, also at normal incidence. APPLICATIONS This section comprises sensors for biotechnological, industrial, environmental, food, pharmaceutical, medical, and related applications. Optical sensors for oxygen have been used for noninvasive analysis of dissolved oxygen in shake flasks for cell cultures. The oxygen-sensitive element is a thin, luminescent patch affixed to the inside bottom of the flask. Both intensity (F1) and decay time (B12) may be measured, the latter said to be more reliable, particularly with respect to repeated sterilization. Mass-transfer coefficients are reported as well. The sensors are fast, do not consume oxygen, and are affordable. Oxygen gradients have been determined in engineered tissue using a fluorescent sensor spot (F2). Optical sensor patches containing a luminescent O2-sensitive indicator were placed on the bottom of a Petri dish, and oxygen supply in a tissue of chondrocytes was monitored over a 3-week culture period. Two-dimensional pO2 images across the tissue section were acquired over the duration of the experiment. Oxygen supply seemed to depend on cell density and cell function. pO2 values below 11 Torr impair proper tissue development. The results illustrate that the method is ideally suited to assess the oxygen demand of cartilage cultures. pH can be continuously monitored in-line in perfused bioreactors using an optical pH sensor (C2). The pH indicator phenol red was added to the medium, and its spectra were recorded over time. The design of a prototype miniature bioreactor for high-throughput automated bioprocessing was described (F3). A miniature bioreactor with a diameter equal to that of a single well of a 24-well plate was provided with parameter-sensitive fluorophores (such as for oxygen) whose fluorescence was read with fiber-optic probes. Mass-transfer coefficients are reported as well. Proteins in the eluate of a preparative continuous annular chromatograph were detected with a quartz fiber-optic system that measures the intrinsic absorption of two aromatic amino acids (Tyr, Trp) in proteins (F4). Two types of optical multichannel detectors were developed. The first is a multichannel detector, and the second is a circular optic device. UV absorption is recorded at 280 nm. Calibration plots were established for a series of stock solutons of known concentrations of proteins. The 16channel detector has a limit of detection that corresponds to absorbance changes of 10-4 unit. Near-IR (NIR) spectroscopy has been developed as a noninvasive tool for the direct, real-time monitoring of glucose, lactic acid, acetic acid, and biomass in liquid cultures of microorganisms of the genera Lactobacillus and Staphylococcus (F5). This was achieved by employing a steam-sterilizable optical fiber probe immersed in the culture. Second-derivative spectra were subjected
to partial least-squares regression, and the results were used to build predictive models for each analyte of interest. Interfacing of the NIR system to the bioreactor control system allowed the implementation of completely automated monitoring of different cultivation strategies (continuous, repeated batch). Novel infrared optical probes have been introduced for process monitoring and analysis based on silver halide fibers (F6). Compared to near-IR spectroscopy, for which quartz fiber probes can be applied, the application of previously used mid-IR fiber materials was restricted due to deficiencies with regard to their optical transmission and mechanical properties. Several flexible probes of different geometries were constructed that are suitable for process monitoring. Oil aerosols from natural pipelines can be detected with an optical sensor assembly (F7). Sensors for moisture and pH value in reinforced concrete were reported (ref F8; also see sections B and C). The dye pyridinium-N-phenolate shows a moisture-dependent absorption. It was embedded in a polymer matrix. Increasing moisture causes a shortwave shift of the absorption. pH in concrete was measured with a fiber-optic sensor consisting of a pH indicator dye immobilized in a hydrophilic polymer matrix. The sensor system is reported to display long-term stability even in media of pH 12-13. Rugged, low-cost diode laser sensors for water and temperature were described (F9). These provide fast, accurate, and nonintrusive methods for monitoring species and temperature in combustors. A two-channel system was developed that combines lasers at 1343 and 1392 nm into a fiber that transmits the beam to the probe location. Modulation of each laser at a different frequency enables both channels to be detected by a single detector, simplifying the system. In situ gas diagnostics can be performed in harsh environments such as volcano fumaroles or industrial combustion of glass furnaces using a compact, rugged, and portable fiber-optic evanescent field laser sensor (F10). The beam of a single-mode diode laser operated at around 1570 nm is coupled into the fiber. At the other end of the fiber, an IR detector is used to record the transmitted light intensity. Due to frustrated total reflection (FTR) and attenuated total reflection (ATR), the intensity is attenuated when passing the fiber. The FTR is related to a change of the index of refraction while the ATR is related to a change of the absorption coefficient. By tuning the laser wavelength across the absorption lines of analytes surrounding the fiber, a spectral intensity profile is obtained. Results from first field measurements at a volcano site were reported. H2S, CO2, and H2O were directly detected in the gas stream. Laser-based gas analysis for process control in waste incineration applications was reported (F11). A commercial gas analyzer based on tunable diode laser spectroscopy has successfully been applied to control and monitoring applications in the waste incineration industry. The analyzer was optimized for process control in the industrial environment and provides real-time signals for water vapor, oxygen, and temperature. A fiber-optic sensor was described that can detect fault gas dissolved in transformer oil (F12). Outlet pipes of petroleum wells can be continuously monitored for petroleum, water, and gases (F13). The sensor signals were transmitted to a microprocessing unit for pattern recognition analysis. An alarm can be given if the percentages of components (i.e., crude petroleum, water, and gases) exceed
certain levels at predetermined times. An OTDR-based fiber-optic chemical sensor was applied to the localization of hydrocarbon leakage (F14). The time delay was measured between short light pulses entering the fiber and discrete changes in the backscatter signals caused by local extraction of hydrocarbons into the fiber cladding. Distributed sensing of pure liquid hydrocarbons and their aqueous solutions was demonstrated with a mini-OTDR adapted to sensing fibers of up to 1-km length. Fibers are increasingly being used in spectroscopy during polymer melt processing (F15). New software allowed real-time acquisition and manipulation of spectra during melting. Chemometric techniques can be applied to produce robust calibration models for analysis of polymer melt compositions and to control melting (and molding) processes. A method and apparatus for in situ determination of molten polymer compositions using electronic absorption spectroscopy has been patented (F16). The application of various multivariate methods to determine the composition of a flowing, molten, immiscible, polyethylenepolypropylene blend from near-IR spectra was examined (F17). On the basis of previous approaches, several methods were investigated, namely, second-derivative absorptiometry, multiplicative scatter correction, and a combination of the two methods. The latter method was found to be most suitable. The continuum regression approach, a method that encompasses ordinary leastsquares, partial least-squares, and principal component regression models, was then implemented and provided the best prediction model. A new sensor head was developed for mid-infrared fiber-optic underwater sensors (F18). It was found that a U-shaped sensor head was the most suitable sensor geometry. A prototype was attached to an underwater FT-IR spectrometer and subjected to simulated real-world flume tank tests under controlled conditions. The sensor head allowed qualitative and quantitative analysis of a range of environmentally relevant analytes down to ppb concentrations. Real-time in situ determination of free Cu(II) at picomolar levels in seawater is possible with a fluorescence lifetime-based fiber-optic biosensor (F19). Direct and chemically mediated absorption spectroscopy using optical fiber instrumentation can be used to monitor chromium in sewage, but also for determination of gasoline (F20). In all these sensors, a combination of broadband and multiband spectral measurements is collected using the same custom instrumentation unit consisting of LED light sources and an optical fiber microspectrometer. The custom instrumentation implemented to address these sensors is their key feature. It opens the possibility of addressing other sensors making use of absorption-based optrodes. Metal ions in soil are detectable with a “direct push” sensor (F21) that enables real-time, in situ measurement in soils. The response is affected by the soil matrix conditions of grain size, composition, and water content. Calibration standards were used to generate a site-specific calibration curve. To compensate for moisture content, extra laser pulses are used to volatilize the water. When multiple spectra are taken of a single, homogenized soil sample, there is a significant amount of variability in the peak intensities. There is no internal standard available to correct for this variability. An optical algal biosensor for heavy metals expolits the inhibitory effect of heavy metals on alkaline phosphatase Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 76, No. 12, June 15, 2004
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(F22). The enzyme is present in the external membrane of C. vulgaris microalgae. Oxygen in underground air can be analyzed with a plastic fiber sensor array (B10). Oxygen, consumed in a lignite mine tailing affected by acid mine drainage formation, displays a strong concentration gradient to a depth of ∼6 m. Fiber optics can be used to monitor the dissolution of drugs such as rifampicin (F23) and the concentration of adriamycin in rabbit blood (F24). The excitement about the possibility of monitoring glucose noininvasively via near-IR spectroscopy appears to have ceased since the number of respective articles has fallen dramatically. A novel glucose fiber probe was reported (F25) that consists of one central optical fiber around which several others were arranged in circle. Light was shone onto the skin surface through the circle fibers, and scattered light reaching the central detecting fiber was collected and transmitted to the detection system. Glucose intake experiments showed that there is good correlation between the optically determined glucose levels and the values determined with blood samples, particularly if measured at around 1600 nm. Breath ammonia, resulting from Helicobacter pylori infection, can be analyzed with an ammonia sensor (F26). Before urea ingestion, pylori-positive subjects had significantly lower breath ammonia levels than negative subjects, but had a significantly larger increase in breath ammonia after urea ingestion. Molecularly self-assembled thin-film materials may be incorporated in optical fiber waveguides to form humidity and other gas sensors of use in biomedical diagnostic systems. Distal end sensors based on this concept may be fabricated by molecularly self-assembling selected polymers and functionalized inorganic nanoclustesr into multilayered thin films on the cleaved and polished flat ends of single-mode optical fibers (F27). The gastroesophageal system can be monitored with optical fiber sensors (F28). Specifically, foregut diseases can be diagnosed using sensors for the bile, carbon dioxide, and pH. The clinically relevant parameter is the exposure time of the stomach/oesophagus mucosa to the bile. A combined imaging and detection sensor for localized L-glutamate release at the insect neuromuscular junction was presented (F29). The sensor gel, spin-coated onto the tip of an optical imaging fiber, is composed of L-glutamate oxidase (GlOx), a pH-sensitive fluorescent dye, and poly(acrylamide-co-N-acryloxysuccinimide). Ammonia is liberated from the interaction of L-glutamate with GlOx, which reversibly reduces the fluorescence of the pH probe. The sensor has a spatial resolution of 3-4 µm and a detection limit of between 10 and 100 µM for L-glutamate. Mid-infrared attenuated total reflection spectroscopy was applied to the human epidermis (stratum corneum) using a silver halide fiber probe of square cross section and adhesive tape stripping. (F30). Evanescent wave spectroscopy using a flexible fiber-optic probe from silver halide fibers of square cross section was employed for characterization and keratinocyte quantification on adhesive tapes. SENSING SCHEMES This section reports on improved or novel sensing schemes based on the use of fiber optics and related waveguides. Aside from their use as plain waveguides, fibers have been used for evanescent wave excitation of fluorescence or Raman scatter, for 3278
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imaging and sensor array purposes, in microsensors and nanosensors, in surface plasmon resonance, and for distributed sensing, to mention only the more important ones. The use of a plain fiber-optic coupler as a platform for bioassays and biosensing was described (G1). The coupler fabrication and design elements crucial to the sensor performance are described, and protein detection was demonstrated. Porous silicon can act as a transducer for immunosensors (G2) because it possesses visible photoluminescence and electroluminescence. A laboratory prototype of an immunosensor based on the photoluminescence of porous silicon is described for the determination of myoglobin in serum. Two-photon fluorescence spectroscopy through optical fibers leads to new sensing schemes (G3). In a typical experiment, the uptake of a targeted drug delivery agent into cultured cancer cells was studied. A hybrid sensor was applied to simultaneously sense temperature and oxygen, and the temperature information was used to compensate for the temperature effect on the oxygen signal (G4). A fast and low-cost digital signal processor enables simultaneous multifrequency measurement to resolve different analytes in the luminescence signal of a sensor foil. Enhanced two-photon biosensing is possible with double-clad photonic crystal fibers (G5). A double-clad photonic crystal fiber was used to improve detection efficiency over a standard single-mode fiber in a twophoton fluorescence detection scheme in which a dye was excited and its backscattered fluorescence was detected through the same fiber. An improved refractive index microsensor based on SPR for fine-scale measurements in aquatic environments was introduced (G6). Refractive index measurements in marine environments were performed to characterize light conditions around photosynthetically active organisms. The sensor achieves a spatial resolution of better than 1 mm, covering the range of 1.30-1.38 refractive index units with an accuracy of 5 × 10-4. Swellable polymer microspheres also have been studied. A scheme for multiwavelength optical fiber liquid refractometry based on intensity modulation uses two fibers and a mirror as thed reflector (G7). The sensing scheme is based on reflective intensity modulation. A novel sensing probe was designed with the outer ring of fibers acting as illuminating fibers and a center fiber acting as the read fiber. A sensing device has been introduced that utilizes a polymerized colloidal array photonic crystal material that diffracts light in the visible spectral region due to the periodic spacing of colloidal particles. On binding a chemical species through molecular recognition, the polymer swells, and this can be detected (G8). The “dual closed-loop optoelectronic autooscillatory detection circuit” was introduced as a new technique for fluorescence lifetime-based chemical/biological sensor arrays (G9). The instrument comprises a primary, closed loop and a secondary loop controlling a variable-phase delay within the primary loop. This system is said to be simple, inexpensive, and scalable for sensor array purposes. Its capabilities were demonstrated with a pHsensitive fluorescent probe and an immunosensor based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer. The finding of an anomalous reflection of light on thin gold films has led to a new sensing scheme that was demonstrated for the system biotin-streptavidin (E38). Colloidal gold-modified
optical fibers were shown to enable chemical and biochemical sensing (E39). Colorimetric resonant reflection has been introduced as a new direct assay technique (E40). A guided mode resonant phenomenon is used to produce an optical structure that, when illuminated with white light, is designed to reflect only a single wavelength. When (bio)molecules are attached to the surface, the reflected wavelength is shifted due to the change of the optical path of light that is coupled into the grating. By linking a molecular receptor to the grating surface, complementary molecules can be detected without the use of any kind of fluorescent probe or label. Recent advances in long-period gratings, including (1) widely tunable single resonant band long-period gratings, (2) long-period gratings fabricated in single crystal sapphire fibers, and (3) longperiod gratings fabricated in photonic crystal fibers, may result in highly sensitive biosensors (among other applications) (G10). A fiber-optic amplifier loop was used to improve gas sensing by cavity ringdown absorption (G11). The ring-down cavity consists of an optical fiber loop containing a microoptic cell and an erbiumdoped fiber amplifier. The amplifier introduces gain into the cavity to increase the ringdown times and therefore the overall sensitivity of the system. A gas-permeable liquid core waveguide was used as a longpath length spectrophotometric cell for sensing CO2 (G12). The partial pressure of CO2 in natural waters and the atmosphere was quantified. A liquid core (capillary) waveguide filled with an indicator and bicarbonate buffer) undergoes spectral changes if exposed to CO2. Using an 18-cm cell with low indicator concentrations (10 µM), this system displays adequate precision and an accuracy in the pCO2 range of 200-500 µatm. The response time is 2 min even for low-level pCO2. A reservoir-type capillary microsensor was employed for pCO2 analysis in seawater (B18). A theoretical study of tapered, porous clad optical fibers for detection of gases revealed that the sensor response time and the minimum detectable concentrations depend on the taper ratio and geometry of the taper profiles, the absorptivity of gas, and the diffusion coefficients in the porous cladding (G13). U-Shaped fiber-optic pH probes were characterized in terms of effects of bending radius of the probe and the numerical aperture of the fiber on the sensitivity of the sensor (G14). U-Shaped probes also enable the determination of the critical micelle concentration of detergents (G15). A decrease in the bending radius of the U-shape is found to increase sensitivity. Heat-drawn biconical tapers were used for fluorescent sensing of solutions of fluorescein (G16). A capillary biosensor was demonstrated that uses the waveguiding properties of the capillary to integrate the signal over an increased surface area without simultaneously increasing the background noise from the detector. This biosensor achieves limits of detection of 30-50 pg mL-1 in immunoassays. Two different approaches to using the capillaries as immunosensors are described, either of which could be adapted for multianalyte sensing (G17). A microbend fiber-optic chemical sensor was described in a patent (G18). Light guided through the microbend section scatters out of the fiber core and interacts, either directly or indirectly, with the chemical in the sample, inducing fluorescence radiation that is scattered back into the microbend section and returned to an optical detector.
Sensor arrays are en vogue. A randomly ordered high-density fiber-optic microsensor array enables organic vapor discrimination, thus mimicking vertebrate olfaction (G19). Sensor arrays may also detect explosives and result in high-throughput genomic interrogation techniques. High-density microarray platforms also have applications in live cell, protein, and enzymic assays. A fiber-optic apparatus and its use in combinatorial material science was patented (G20). A cross-reactive metal ion sensor array in a microtiter plate format and making use of rather unspecific metal ion probes having almost identical fluorescence spectra was presented (C19). The unselective responses of the indicators in the presence of mixtures of cations generate a characteristic pattern that was imaged and analyzed by chemometric tools. Fiberoptic techniques also have been applied in time-resolved imaging of hydrogen peroxide using sensor membranes in a microwell format (D12). An optical imaging fiber-based recombinant bacterial biosensor (G21) was presented that is composed of thousands of individual bacteria cells expressing a reporter gene that responds to the presence of environmental pollutants. Each microwell at the tip of a fiber was used to accommodate a single living bacterium, allowing simultaneous monitoring of the genetic responses of all the cells in the array. Microspheres have served as useful materials in new sensing schemes. Thus, a high-density fiber-optic genosensor microsphere array was introduced that enables zeptomole detection limits (E26). Fluorescent oligonucleotide-functionalized microspheres positioned on the distal face of an etched imaging fiber served to study the binding of oligomers to fluorescently labeled complementary DNA sequences. Microspheres also were used in ionophore-based ion sensors and in ion extraction (G22). The microspheres do not contain a plasticizer, but sensing components including H+-selective (or K+-selective) chromoionophores, and anionic sites. One type of particle responded to an anion-proton coextraction mechanism, while the other functioned by ion exchange. It is said that with the advent of plasticizer-free sensor microspheres a wide variety of ions may be assessed using beadbased sensing strategies, such as lab-on-a-chip technologies, bundled optical fiber arrays, and flow cytometry, without experiencing the deleterious effects resulting from plasticizer leaching. The ionophores may be covalently immobilized (G23). In a scheme for automatic decoding of sensor types within randomly ordered, high-density optical sensor arrays (G24), use is made of vapor-sensitive microbeads containing the dye Nile Red. On exposure to vapors, these undergo reproducible spectral changes, which allow the beads to be grouped into categogies by optical decoding. The production, properties, and applications of fluorescent nanosensors for potassium, oxygen, calcium, and pH imaging inside live cells were reported as well (G25). The novel platform for intracellular monitoring uses three different nanoparticle fabrication technologies. These nanosensors, based on polyacrylamide, cross-linked decyl methacrylate, or silica-based sol-gel, were tested in intracellular surroundings. Each bead matrix can be combined with specific indicators, ionophores, or enzymes to produce sensors selective for the component of interest. Chemical vapor-deposited diamond films can improve the selfreferencing of fiber-optic Raman probes (G26). Diamond films grown by a microwave plasma deposition process exhibit esAnalytical Chemistry, Vol. 76, No. 12, June 15, 2004
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sentially no Raman spectral background while exhibiting a strong Raman peak at 1332 cm-1. Internal referencing is accomplished by normalizing all spectral intensities of the chemical species to the integrated area of the diamond reference peak and verified using ethanol/water mixtures. Fiber-optic Raman probes have been used for analysis of gas mixtures in enclosures (G27). It was found that unfiltered, nonimaging probes have lower detection thresholds than a filtered, imaging, fiber-optic probe. Achievable thresholds for hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane in gas mixtures were demonstrated to be
