Forensic Science - ACS Publications

6 LEAA's Forensic Science Research Program

Downloaded by TEXAS STATE UNIV SAN MARCOS on December 26, 2017 | http://pubs.acs.org Publication Date: June 1, 1975 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1975-0013.ch006

JOSEPH L. PETERSON J o h n Jay College of C r i m i n a l Justice, N e w York, N. Y.

The g o a l o f t h e Law E n f o r c e m e n t Assistance Administration ( L E A A ) is t o r e d u c e c r i m e a n d delin quency w h i l e continually improving the quality of criminal justice. The responsibilities of the National Institute o f Law E n f o r c e m e n t and Criminal Justice (NILECJ), the research arm o f L E A A , include research and d e v e l o p m e n t efforts in the prevention o f c r i m e , in the detection of criminal acts, in the identification and a p p r e h e n s i o n o f offenders, a n d in the swift a n d fair adjudication o f s u s p e c t s who a r e arrested and charged. The basic rationale of this research is that by increasing the likelihood of arrest and conviction, the risk associated with the commission of crimes is also elevated. If the risk of criminality becomes sufficiently high, there will be a proportional reduction in the volume and impact of criminal activity. Within the past decade the methods of science and technology have assumed increasingly important roles in efforts to prevent, control and detect crime. One element of the total scientific effort within the criminal justice system assists in establishing that a crime has indeed been committed, in reconstructing the crime, in identifying likely suspects, and in eventually proving or disproving the involvement of a suspected offender with a particular criminal act. This is forensic science. The creation of LEAA followed from the President's Crime Commission Report of 1967 which also recommended the greater utilization of physical evidence in the administration of criminal justice. The greatest proportion of LEAA funds in the forensic science area has been channeled down through the various state planning agencies in the form of block and discretion-

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a r y g r a n t awards. These awards have r e s u l t e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f many new l a b o r a t o r i e s a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y and i n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s through t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f b a d l y n e e d e d e q u i p m e n t and p e r s o n n e l positions. LEAA f u n d s h a v e e n a b l e d s t a t e and l o c a l c r i m i n a l i s t i c s l a b o r a t o r i e s to provide scientific s e r v i c e t o j u r i s d i c t i o n s w h e r e none was available b e f o r e , t o keep pace w i t h the s k y r o c k e t i n g i n c r e a s e i n d r u g s r e q u i r i n g a n a l y s i s , and t o accommodate t h e i n c r e a s e d f l o w o f o t h e r forms of p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e . F e d e r a l funds a l s o have been i n s t r u m e n t a l i n the development of s t a t e - w i d e crime l a b o r a t o r y systems and c o m p r e h e n s i v e l o n g - r a n g e plans. Over the p a s t f i v e y e a r s at the n a t i o n a l l e v e l , N I L E C J h a s f u n d e d a number o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s i n the f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e area. Many o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s have i n c l u d e d t h e r e f i n e m e n t or development o f new t e c h n i q u e s and i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n t o f a c i l i t a t e the examination of p h y s i c a l evidence. Research also has e x a m i n e d t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f l a b o r a t o r i e s and t h e manner i n w h i c h t h e y i n t e r f a c e w i t h o t h e r components of the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system. O t h e r r e s e a r c h has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m p l e t e l y new fields, s u c h as v o i c e p r i n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , w h i c h a r e now outs i d e t h e s c o p e o f most f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r y c a p a b i l i t i e s . Research

In-Progress

I n FY 1973, s e l e c t c a t e g o r i e s o f r e s e a r c h were d e s i g n a t e d as h i g h p r i o r i t y a r e a s : forensic science manpower n e e d s , management and e v a l u a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , and l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p m e n t . S e v e r a l of the p r o j e c t s funded are n e a r i n g c o m p l e t i o n , or have been c o m p l e t e d , and m e r i t a b r i e f review. Personnel. On J u l y 1 5 , 1973, the I n s t i t u t e awarded a g r a n t t o t h e F o r e n s i c S c i e n c e s Foundation, w h i c h i s an a d j u n c t t o t h e A m e r i c a n Academy o f F o r e n s i c Sciences. The F o u n d a t i o n , t h e r e s e a r c h arm o f t h e Academy, i s t a c k l i n g a p r o b l e m at t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h e entire forensic science profession: the a v a i l a b i l i t y and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f s c i e n t i f i c p e r s o n n e l . The q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of i n d i v i d u a l s p r a c t i c i n g i n the f o r e n s i c d i s c i p l i n e s r a n g e f r o m p o o r t o e x c e l l e n t and r e f l e c t t h e i r i n n a t e a b i l i t i e s as w e l l as t h e i r e d u c a t i o n and training. W i t h p e r h a p s t h e e x c e p t i o n o f f o r e n s i c medi c i n e , i n d i v i d u a l s p r a c t i c i n g i n t h i s f i e l d are normally p r e pared through i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g . T h e r e a r e few u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l programs i n the c o u n t r y o f f e r i n g



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s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g i n any o f t h e f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e s . E v e n s t u d e n t s who do g r a d u a t e f r o m s u c h p r o g r a m s must u n d e r g o m o n t h s o r y e a r s o f a d d i t i o n a l t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e p r i o r t o q u a l i f y i n g as e x p e r t witnesses. O t h e r t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s are o f f e r e d o c c a s i o n a l l y by s c i e n t i f i c i n s t i t u t e s or law e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c i e s which serve the o b j e c t i v e of c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n in the f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e s . V i r t u a l l y no i n f o r m a t i o n exists concerning t h e o b j e c t i v e s , c o n t e n t and v a l u e o f t h e s e d i v e r g e n t e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s . T h i s p r o j e c t , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l s e r v e as an initial assessment of the f o r e n s i c science p r o f e s s i o n : s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t s p e r s o n n e l ( p r o f e s s i o n a l and p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l ) , t h e i r education and t r a i n i n g . The Foundation project s t a f f i s gathering d e s c r i p t i v e data on t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n , on t h e s c i e n t i f i c l a b o r a t o r i e s i n w h i c h t h e y f u n c t i o n , and on a l l the r e l e v a n t education and t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s i n the country. I n f o r m a t i o n on c r i m e s c e n e e v i d e n c e t e c h n i c i a n s and t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n t h i s phase of the p r o j e c t . B a s e d u p o n t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e s e d a t a , recommenda t i o n s w i l l be made r e g a r d i n g manpower d e f i c i e n c i e s w i t h i n the p r o f e s s i o n , the nature of educational programs r e q u i r e d t o t r a i n q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l , and o t h e r improvement programs t o i n c r e a s e the c o n t r i b u t i o n of the f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e s to the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system. S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e p o r t s w i l l be p r e p a r e d by t h e g r a n t e e : A r e p o r t on t h e P e r s o n n e l B a c k g r o u n d and Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f s c i e n t i s t s and paraprofessi o n a l s i n the f o r e n s i c science field; P e r s o n n e l Shortages or Other C r i s e s i n the forensic science profession; The I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and D e s c r i p t i o n o f M a j o r F o r e n s i c S c i e n c e E d u c a t i o n and T r a i n i n g C e n t e r s ; A r e p o r t on F o r e n s i c S c i e n t i s t and E v i d e n c e T e c h n i c i a n R e c r u i t m e n t , S e l e c t i o n and T r a i n ing P r a c t i c e s . This p r o j ect c o n s t i t u t e s a neces sary f i r s t step i n a p r o g r a m t o y i e l d p e r s o n n e l who a r e more q u a l i f i e d to perform t h e i r jobs, leading to increased q u a l i t y and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f s u c h p e r s o n n e l . Final reports are a n t i c i p a t e d by November , 197^• Management and E v a l u a t i o n . A second major area of r e s e a r c h i n which p r o j e c t s are n e a r i n g completion a d d r e s s e s t h e p r o b l e m s o f m a n a g i n g and evaluating


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forensic science laboratories. I t has become i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e i s an a c u t e a b s e n c e o f management i n f o r m a t i o n r e g u l a r l y g a t h e r e d by t h e n a t i o n s crime l a b o r a t o r i e s . Very few l a b o r a t o r i e s keep i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s i n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n ; f o r t h a t m a t t e r , t h e r e i s no a c c e p t e d definit i o n or d e s c r i p t i o n of a crime l a b o r a t o r y . Each s t a t e o r l o c a l l a b o r a t o r y h a s d e v e l o p e d i n i t s own u n i q u e fashion, primarily reflecting the special requirements of t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n i t s e r v e s and t h e i n t e r e s t s and c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e crime l a b o r a t o r y d i r e c t o r and t h e chief executive of the l o c a l law enforcement agency. Up t o t h i s t i m e t h e r e h a s b e e n n o a c c e p t e d n o m e n c l a t u r e used t o d e s c r i b e t h e a c t i v i t i e s and output o f forensic laboratories. This absence of u n i f o r m i t y i n b a s i c r e c o r d keeping has prevented t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a from more t h a n a s i n g l e j u r i s d i c t i o n and t h e c o m p i l a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s and assessments. T h e r e i s l i t t l e way o f k n o w i n g i f t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f f e d e r a l funds i n t o the f o r e n s i c science f i e l d i n the past s e v e r a l years has been w o r t h w h i l e w i t h o u t such data. Management r e p o r t i n g models a r e needed so t h a t t h e y c a n be i m p l e m e n t e d and o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s can be p e r i o d i c a l l y p e r f o r m e d t o m e a s u r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v a r i o u s l a b o r a t o r y configurations and o p e r a t i o n s .


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Measures of performance. I n t h e f a l l o f 1973, three crime l a b o r a t o r i e s (Contra Costa County, C a l i f o r n i a ; Dade C o u n t y , F l o r i d a ; and C o l u m b u s , O h i o ) were s e l e c t e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i t e s f o r t h e development of measures of performance and e f f e c t i v e ness. The P l a n n i n g R e s e a r c h C o r p o r a t i o n , w i t h Mr. L o w e l l ¥. B r a d f o r d a s P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r , was a w a r d e d t h e task of developing a conceptual criminalistics laborat o r y model and methods f o r measuring t h e performance o f such l a b o r a t o r i e s . Teams o f r e s e a r c h e r s e a c h s p e n t t w o months c o l l e c t i n g d a t a on t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e t h r e e p r e v i o u s l y mentioned laboratories. Data were gathered on t h e f o r m s o f p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e s u b m i t t e d a n d t h e types o f crimes from which t h e evidence had been recovered. Evidence and cases were t r a c e d through t h e l a b o r a t o r i e s as e x a m i n a t i o n s were p e r f o r m e d and r e s u l t s were f o r m u l a t e d . The p r o j e c t i n v o l v e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a p p l i c a tion of techniques f o r determining the requirements of crime l a b o r a t o r i e s i n terms of p e r s o n n e l , f a c i l i t i e s , equipment and p r o c e d u r e s . A state-of-the-art c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l was d e s i g n e d t o be f l e x i b l e e n o u g h f o r adaption to jurisdictions with dissimilar populations


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and demand c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The m o d e l i s c o n s i s t e n t "with t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s p u b l i s h e d i n t h e c r i m e l a b o r a t o r y s e c t i o n ( S t a n d a r d 12.2) of the volume, Report on P o l i c e , p r e p a r e d by L E A A s l a t i o n a l A d v i s o r y C o m m i s s i o n on C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e S t a n d a r d s and Goals. The o t h e r p r i m a r y c o m p o n e n t o f t h e s t u d y was the development of l a b o r a t o r y performance measures, f o c u s i n g on t h r e e p r i m a r y f a c t o r s : quality, quantity and r e s p o n s e t i m e . The m o s t s e n s i t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e was quality, which refers primarily to a n a l y t i c a l c o n t r o l s b u i l t i n t o a l a b o r a t o r y o p e r a t i o n and provisions f o r p r e s e r v i n g the i n t e g r i t y of the evidence and reports. A " p e r f o r m a n c e i n d e x " was developed which s h o u l d e n a b l e any l a b o r a t o r y t o u n d e r t a k e i t s own e v a l u a t i o n and t o p r e d i c t t h e impact o f p r o p o s e d improvements to the l a b o r a t o r y p r i o r to t h e i r a c t u a l implementation. The p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e s r e p o r t i s t o be p u b l i s h e d i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e and w i l l be d i s s e m i n a t e d t o a l l criminalistics laboratories. The r e p o r t , a l t h o u g h an i n i t i a l i n q u i r y i n t o a very complex problem, i s a major c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e and s h o u l d be carefully e x a m i n e d and c r i t i q u e d by a l l c r i m e l a b o r a t o r y professionals. H o p e f u l l y , i t w i l l s e r v e as t h e b a s i s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h and r e f i n e m e n t o f p e r f o r m a n c e models and m e a s u r e s .


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Measures of e f f e c t i v e n e s s . Concurrent w i t h the r e s e a r c h to develop measures of performance, the C a l s p a n C o r p o r a t i o n has been d e v e l o p i n g t e c h n i q u e s for measuring the e f f e c t i v e n e s s or impact of crime l a b o r a t o r i e s on t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m . Prior to this study the various uses of c r i m i n a l i s t i c s i n c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e o p e r a t i o n s have not been e v a l u a t e d q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a n d on a c r i m e - s p e c i f i c b a s i s . Even though c r i m e l a b o r a t o r i e s have e x p a n d e d and i n c r e a s e d i n number i n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h shows t h a t t h e q u a l i t y and s c o p e o f l a b o r a t o r y o u t p u t i s s a t i s f y i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l needs and expectat i o n s o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s , a t t o r n e y s and t h e c o u r t s . The C a l s p a n s t u d y , w h i c h i s s c h e d u l e d f o r c o m p l e t i o n i n October, w i l l thoroughly describe the r o l e of criminalistics operations in criminal justice systems. Methods f o r measuring the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of c r i m i n a l i s t i c s o p e r a t i o n s are being developed and v a l i d a t e d . A s e r i e s o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w i l l be d r a f t e d b a s e d u p o n d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and o b s e r v a t i o n i n t h e t h r e e locations. These suggestions should serve to improve the utilizat i o n of c r i m i n a l i s t i c s not only i n the study s i t e s , but in a l l forensic l a b o r a t o r i e s throughout the country.



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Laboratory Techniques. In addition to the previous research programs which address t h e personnel and management i n f o r m a t i o n needs o f f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e laboratories, the National Institute i s funding r e s e a r c h t o improve i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and a n a l y t i c a l techniques applied to the analysis of p h y s i c a l e v i dence. The A e r o s p a c e C o r p o r a t i o n o f E l S e g u n d o , C a l i f o r n i a , a n d t h e Law E n f o r c e m e n t S t a n d a r d s Laborat o r y o f t h e N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s (NBS) have s e r v e d as p r i m e c o n t r a c t o r s t o t h e I n s t i t u t e i n t h e laboratory technique area. Although space does n o t permit a complete d i s c u s s i o n of a l l p r o j e c t s underway at A e r o s p a c e a n d NBS, I w i l l d e s c r i b e two p r o j e c t areas which are of great interest t o f o r e n s i c science p r a c t i t i o n e r s and r e s e a r c h e r s . Blood and b l o o d s t a i n a n a l y s i s . The A e r o s p a c e C o r p o r a t i o n has completed a survey and t e c h n i c a l assessment of the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t of f o r e n s i c serological practices i n the United States. Problems have been d e f i n e d which c u r r e n t l y l i m i t t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f b l o o d c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , and approaches have been i d e n t i f i e d which have t h e p o t e n t i a l o f s o l v i n g these problems. T h i s a s s e s s m e n t was a c c o m p l i s h e d p r i m a r i l y through contacts with c r i m i n a l i s t i c s laborat o r i e s , blood banks, i n d u s t r i a l organizations which manufacture i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and reagents f o r b l o o d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and t h r o u g h an e x t e n s i v e s e a r c h o f t h e literature. I t h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d t h a t a l t h o u g h human b l o o d i s o n e o f t h e m o s t common c l u e m a t e r i a l s f o u n d a t c r i m e scenes, laboratory a n a l y s i s procedures are comparativel y u n d e v e l o p e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s. The m a j o r l i m i t a t i o n s a p p e a r t o be t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s i m p l e and r a p i d m e t h o d s o f a n a l y s i s , t h e l a c k o f h i g h quality antisera prepared specifically f o r dried bloodstain a n a l y s i s , and t h e absence o f blood frequency distribut i o n data f o r the population of the United States. The LEAA-sponsored program at Aerospace, t h e r e f o r e , i s i n t e n d e d t o improve t h e methods f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n o f g e n e t i c v a r i a n t s i n d r i e d b l o o d , t o expand t h e data base concerning frequency of d i s t r i b u t i o n of these v a r i a n t s , and t o design a s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e f u t u r e c o l l e c t i o n and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f such data. The p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p u r i t y a n d s p e c i f i c i t y o f a n t i s e r a may b e s o l v e d b y p r o v i d i n g s p e c i a l inducements t o manufacturers t o go t h r o u g h t h e added expense o f p r o d u c i n g such a n t i sera f o r t h e l i m i t e d market of f o r e n s i c l a b o r a t o r i e s . A cooperative r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e government and p u b l i c and



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p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l be n e e d e d t o a c c u m u l a t e t h e data base needed f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g the uniquenes s of any b l o o d s t a i n . I n some c a s e s g e n e t i c r e s e a r c h and m e d i c a l t e s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s are or have the p o t e n t i a l of c o l l e c t i n g u s e f u l p o p u l a t i o n frequency data, but u n t i l t h i s t i m e h a v e n o t k e p t a d e q u a t e r e c o r d s o r do not have the i n f o r m a t i o n i n a form a c c e s s i b l e t o forensic laboratories. The d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and l e s s e x p e n s i v e methods w o u l d c e r t a i n l y c o n t r i b u t e t o the g e n e r a t i o n of such data. From what has been l e a r n e d o v e r t h e p a s t year d u r i n g t h i s a s s e s s m e n t p h a s e , The A e r o s p a c e C o r p o r a t i o n a n d i t s s u b c o n t r a c t o r s w i l l b e c o n c e n t r a t i n g now on the development of b e t t e r b l o o d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n methodologies. Improved immunological and e l e c t r o p h o r e t i c m e t h o d s , as w e l l as c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e and other new m e t h o d s , a r e b e i n g e x p l o r e d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e forensic serology problem. O t h e r new b l o o d s y s t e m s w i t h even h i g h e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s are known b u t h a v e y e t t o be a d a p t ed f o r us e w i t h d r i ed b l o o d . C r i m i n a l i s t s p l a y an e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t role in t h i s b l o o d s t a i n research program. The n e e d s o f t h e u s e r community of c r i m i n a l i s t s are w e l l - r e p r e s e n t e d by i n d i v i d u a l s a c t i n g e i t h e r as c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e cont r a c t o r s o r as a d v i s o r s t o t h e I n s t i t u t e . As new p r o t o t y p e e q u i p m e n t and methods o f a n a l y s i s a r e developed, c r i m e l a b o r a t o r i e s w i l l be i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r f i e l d t e s t i n g and e v a l u a t i o n . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t a c o m p a r a b l e s u r v e y and assessment task i n the gunshot residue d e t e c t i o n area r e c e n t l y has been c o m p l e t e d by A e r o s p a c e . The longrange o b j e c t i v e s of t h i s r e s e a r c h program are t o d e v e l o p r a p i d , r e l i a b l e and I n e x p e n s i v e t e c h n i q u e s and equipment f o r use by crime l a b o r a t o r i e s i n t h e detect i o n o f g u n s h o t r e s i d u e s on t h e h a n d s o f s u s p e c t s . As t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o g r e s s e s , t h e f i n d i n g s w i l l be disseminated to the c r i m i n a l i s t i c s community. Standard reference c o l l e c t i o n s . The Law Enforcement S t a n d a r d s L a b o r a t o r y o f NBS h a s b e e n i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e needs and u s e s o f s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e f i l e s or c o l l e c t i o n s of s e l e c t groups of f o r e n s i c m a t e r i a l s . A t e n t a t i v e d a t a b a s e has been e s t a b l i s h e d b a s e d upon s u r v e y s a n d i n t e r v i ews w i t h c r i m i n a l i s t s , educators, s c ie n t i s t s and m a n u f a c t u r e r s . Existing forensi c m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t i o n s and d a t a f i l e s have been l o c a t e d and e v a l u a t e d . New proposed forensic m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t i o n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s have been developed including r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o s i z e , s c o p e and c o s t s o f development. The r e p o r t , a l t h o u g h n o t y e t p u b l i s h e d ,



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i s b e i n g u t i l i z e d by t h e P r o j e c t SEARCH C r i m e L a b o r a t o r y I n f o r m a t i o n System P r o j e c t Committee and should prove v a l u a b l e i n f u t u r e r e f e r e n c e standard res earch. Two s t a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e c o l l e c t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d and a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d to crime l a b o r a t o r i e s i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s . The first i s a s e t o f a u t o p a i n t c o l o r c h i p s f o r 197^ domestic vehicles. Each set c o n t a i n s samples of a p p r o x i m a t e l y ikO c o l o r s p l u s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e makes and m o d e l s o f a u t o m o b i l e s on w h i c h e a c h c o l o r was used. The a c t u a l c o l o r samp1es a r e i n t h e f o r m o f l " x l V coated metal c h i p s , housed i n hinged p l a s t i c h o l d e r s . While t h i s r e f e r e n c e c o l l e c t i o n i s intended f o r c o l o r comparisons o n l y , i t i s hoped t h a t f u t u r e r e s e a r c h w i l l allow f o r the d i s t r i b u t i o n of corresponding chemical analysis data. S t a n d a r d samples of r e f r a c t i v e i n d e x g l a s s are b e i n g d i s t r i b u t e d at nominal c o s t t o i n t e r e s t e d f o r e n si c laboratories. Blocks of g l a s s having p r o p e r t i e s s i m i l a r t o g l a s s used i n auto h e a d l i g h t s have been cut and p o l i s h e d f o r u s e as r e f r a c t o m e t e r c a l i b r a t i o n s t a n d a r d s ; g r o u n d g l a s s b l o c k s f o r u s e as s t a n d a r d s w i t h the l i q u i d immersion t e c h n i q u e a l s o have been prepared. S a m p l e s o f two l i q u i d s h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d t o s t u d y t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y as l i q u i d r e f r a c t i v e i n d e x standard reference materials. NBS i s a l s o c o n t i n u i n g work i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a compendium o f a u t o h e a d l i g h t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h w i l l c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on r e f r a c t i v e i n d i c e s and t r a c e e l e m e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s , as w e l l as p h o t o g r a p h i c r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f v a r i o u s manufactured lenses . f

Computeri zed I n f o r m a t i o n System. The P r o j e c t SEARCH C r i m i n a l i s t i c s L a b o r a t o r y I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m ( C L I S ) C o m m i t t e e i s a n o t h e r LEAA f u n d e d p r o j e c t . A p p r o x i m a t e l y f i f t e e n c r i m i n a l i s t s a r e s e r v i n g on t h e CLIS Committee w h i c h i s c o n d u c t i n g a r e q u i r e m e n t s a n a l y s i s f o r a nationwide computerized crime l a b o r a t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n system. W i t h t h e as s i s t a n c e o f a t e c h n i c a l s u b c o n t r a c t o r , PRC P u b l i c Management S e r v i c e s , I n c . , t h e committee has d e t e r m i n e d t h e " u s e r n e e d s " f o r such a d a t a system, a c o n c e p t u a l d e s i g n of a computer system t o meet t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s , and an as s e s sment o f d i f f e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and e q u i p m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r the system. The most r e c e n t t a s k r e p o r t s and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p l a n have been c o m p l e t e d and s u b m i t t e d t o t h e a d v i s o r y committee f o r f i n a l review. Copies of the f i n a l r e p o r t s s h o u l d be r e a d y f o r d i s s e m i n a t i o n i n t h e very near f u t u r e .


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W h i l e t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e a l w a y s has attempted t o he r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e p r a c t i c a l n e e d s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l community i n t h e r e s e a r c h i t f u n d s , c r i m i n a l i s t s h a v e h a d a much s t r o n g e r v o i c e i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f p r i o r i t y a r e a s and t h e a c t u a l s e l e c t i o n o f p r o j e c t s i n FY 197^ t h a n a t any p r e v i o u s t i m e . It i s anticipated t h a t t h i s input w i l l continue i n the f u t u r e with c r i m i n a l i s t s p l a y i n g important r o l e s i n the design of new p r o j e c t s and t h e m o n i t o r s h i p and e v a l u a t i o n o f programs a l r e a d y funded. A t t h e L E A A - s p o n s o r e d F B I N a t i o n a l S y m p o s i u m on Crime L a b o r a t o r y Development h e l d i n December, 1973, crime l a b o r a t o r y d i r e c t o r s from around the country selected several p r i o r i t y research areas. The Instit u t e h a s b e e n a b l e t o r e s p o n d t o most o f t h e h i g h p r i o r i t y a r e a s i n t h e f o r m o f new g r a n t s addressing b l o o d , semen and h a i r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . A t t h e F e b r u a r y m e e t i n g o f t h e A m e r i c a n Academy o f F o r e n s i c S c i e n c e s i n D a l l a s , Texas , the C r i m i n a l i s t i c s S e c t i o n supported a r e s o l u t i o n that the F o r e n s i c Sciences Foundation develop a concept paper f o r a n a t i o n a l system of crime l a b o r a t o r y p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t i n g . T h i s , s u b s e q u e n t l y , r e s u l t e d i n a g r a n t award t o t h e F o u n d a t i o n f o r an e i g h t e e n - m o n t h s t u d y w h i c h w i l l t e s t the f e a s i b i l i t y of r e g u l a r p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t i n g i n the nation's forensic laboratories. The I n s t i t u t e a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d an i n f o r m a l c r i m i n a l i s t i c s advi sory board which o f f e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e r e v i e w and e v a l u a t i o n o f c o n c e p t p a p e r s and p r o p o s a l s s u b m i t t e d f o r f u n d i n g . Thi s panel, c o m p o s e d o f s i x l e a d i n g c r i m i n a l i s t s, r e s e a r c h e r s and educators, s e r v e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t s o u r c e o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e and p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e i n the f i e l d of criminalistics. In a d d i t i o n to t h i s group, a p a n e l of f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s from s e v e r a l f e d e r a l law e n f o r c e ment a g e n c i e s was f o r m e d and h a s met p e r i o d i c a l l y t o d i s c u s s important i s s u e s i n the admini s t r a t i o n of r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s. The f o u r p r i n c i p a l new g r a n t s a w a r d e d a r e t h e following: Grant T i t l e : . G r a n t Number: Grantee:

This

Variant Polypeptides i n Hair 7*+-NI-99-0032 H o w a r d P. B a d e n , M.D., Massachusetts General H o s p i t a l , Boston, Massachusetts

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determined variants i n the s t r u c t u r a l proteins o f human h a i r . The g r a n t e e has r e c e n t l y disc o v e r e d a v a r i a n t o f h a i r p r o t e i n and i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h i s award w i l l enable him t o f i n d o t h e r s w h i c h wi11 make t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n s more p r e c i s e . A l i m i t e d survey w i l l be conducted to determine the i n c i d e n c e of the protein v a r i a t i o n s i n the population. Finally, the present e l e c t r o p h o r e s i s analysi s techniques w i l l b e s c a l e d d o w n s o t h a t t h e y may b e used with s i n g l e strands of h a i r . H a i r i s a common a n d i m p o r t a n t t y p e o f evidence since i t i s durable to the environment and more r e s i s t ant t o d e g r a d a t i o n t h a n most o t h e r human t i s s u e s . However, p r e s ent a n a l y s i s m e t h o d s d e p e n d l a r g e l y on m o r p h o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a w h i c h do n o t d i f f e r s h a r p l y b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s and a l s o show g r e a t v a r i a b i l i t y in a single i n d i v i d u a l . Chemical methods of analysis are mainly concerned with the trace metal content of h a i r which i s g r e a t l y affected by environment a l f a c t o r s e i t h e r by c o n t a m i n a t i o n from t h e o u t s i d e or by i n g e s t i o n . Genetic m a r k e r s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , do n o t s h o w c h a n g e w i t h age or e n v i r o n m e n t and a r e f o u n d i n a l l h a i r o f a single person. Grant

Title:

G r a n t Number: Grantee:

Characterization and Individuali z a t i o n o f Semen 7l*-Ni-99-00^1 G e o r g e F. S e n s a b a u g h , D . C r i m . , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p r o j e c t i s t o p r o v i d e the t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e i m p r o v e d a n a l y s i s o f semen i n t h e c o n t e x t of rape i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . The r e s e a r c h h a s two primary obj e c t i v e s : 1) I m p r o v e m e n t o f p r o cedure s f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f semen; and 2) I m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e a b i l i t y t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e semen. T h e s e o b j e c t i v e s w i l l be a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h an a n a l y s i s o f a c i d p h o s p h a t a s e and other proteins to determine whether the forms w h i c h a r e f o u n d i n semen a r e u n i q u e t o semen and w h e t h e r t h e y d i s p l a y g e n e t i c p o l y m o r p h i s m s . A s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s w i l l be done o f t h e protein m a r k e r s i n t h e sperm c e l l membrane. Improvement i n p r o c e d u r e s and a d v a n c e s i n k n o w l e d g e i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f semen benefits


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i n v e s t i g a t i o n and p r o s e c u t i o n by providing independent and s c i e n t i f i c c o r r o b o r a t i o n o f information. The p o t e n t i a l o f semen i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r s h i f t s t h e burden of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n from t h e v i c t i m t o t h e physical evidence. Grant

Title:

Grant lumber: Grantee:

I n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n and I d e n t i fication of Forensically Important P h y s i o l o g i c a l Fluids 75-11-99-0011 C h a r l e s A. M c l n e r n e y , Pittsburgh and A l l e g h e n y C o u n t y C r i m e Laboratory, Pittsburgh, Pa.

T h i s g r a n t p r o p o s a l was s e l e c t e d f o r funding under t h e I n s t i t u t e ' s Innovative Research i n C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e Program which was i n i t i a t e d this past winter. The p u r p o s e of t h i s p r o j e c t i s t o improve t h e c a p a b i l i t y of crime l a b o r a t o r i e s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e and individualize bloodstains through t h e use of genetic markers. The p r o j e c t i s d i v i d e d i n t o three sections, the f i r s t of which addresses the need f o rp o p u l a t i o n f r e q u e n c y d a t a on t h e newer b l o o d systems, i n c l u d i n g : Phosphoglucomutase (PGM), E r y t h r o c y t e Acid Phosphatase (EAP), MN a n d H a p t o g l o b i n ( H P ) . Over 2,000 b l o o d samples from t h e Greater P i t t s b u r g h Blood Bank w i l l be p r o c e s s e d f o r t h e s e f a c t o r s during the fifteen-month grant period. The second part of t h i s project will investigate the applicability of the isoenzyme s y s t e m s G l u t a t h i o n e Reductase and Peptidase A t o dried blood analysis. The grantee proposes, also, t o incorporate the Gm a n d I n v a l l o t y p e s i n t o r o u t i n e u s e . T e c h niques f o ri d e n t i f y i n g these genetic markers are w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d f o rwhole b l o o d b u t must be a d a p t e d f o r d r i e d b l o o d a n a l y s i s . Pers i s t e n c e s t u d i e s w i l l be u n d e r t a k e n t o determine the v i a b i l i t y o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t systems upon drying, t o determine the effect of aging, t o document t h e e f f e c t o f v a r i o u s substrates, and t o d e v i s e a p r a c t i c a l s y s t e m t o t y p e t h e isoenzymes and a l l o t y p e s i n d r i e d blood. The f i n a l o b j e c t i v e w i l l be d i r e c t e d toward the determination of the sexual o r i g i n of b l o o d s t a i n s by measuring t h e l e v e l s o f testosterone and e s t r a d i o l i n d r i e d blood.



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This research w i l l determine the s u i t a b i l i t y of radioimmunoassay techniques f o r such t e s t s and w i l l e s t a b l i s h e x p e r i m e n t a l limits for making sexual determinations b a s e d on t h e ratio of testosterone and e s t r a d i o l i n a bloodstain. The above p r o j e c t i s being c l o s e l y coordinated with the bloodstain research program being c a r r i e d out by t h e Aerospace Corporation. Grant T i t l e : G r a n t Number : Grantee:

Laboratory Proficiency Testing 7U-NI-99-00U8 K e n n e t h S. F i e l d , Forensic Sciences Foundation, I n c . , Rockville, Maryland

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p r o j e c t i s t o c o n d u c t a nationwide criminalistics laboratory prof i c i e n c y t e s t i n g program. The o b j e c t i v e s o f the proj ect a r e : Through t h e use of v o l u n t a r y , anonymous p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t i n g , a s s e s s the a n a l y t i c a l accuracy of c r i m i n a l istics laboratories i n the processing of s e l e c t e d p h y s i c a l evidence; Make s t a t i s t i c a l studies of laboratory p r o f i c i e n c y i n t h e p r o c e ss i n g o f t e s t samples and o f t h e a c c u r a c y and precision of the various analytical methods used; E s t a b l i s h the basis f o r the design of e d u c a t i o n a l programs i n t h e area of a n a l y t i c a l methods which will assist the criminali stics profession in the attainment of higher levels of p r o f i c i e n c y . The f i r s t s t e p i n t h e p r o j e c t w i l l be the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the P r o j e c t Advisory Committee c o n s i s t i n g o f s e v e r a l n a t i o n a l l y known c r i m i n a l i s t i c s a u t h o r i t i e s t o s e r v e as a d v i s o r s on a l l f a c e t s o f t h e p r o g r a m . Other c r i t i c a l steps i n the proj ect involve the s e l e c t i o n and manufacture o f t y p i c a l evidence according t o exact s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n t o e a c h c r i m i n a l i s t i c s laboratory i n the United States, i t s possess i o n s , and t o a group o f l a b o r a t o r i e s i n


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Canada. On a s t r i c t l y - v o l u n t a r y b a s i s , e a c h l a b o r a t o r y w i l l submit i t s a n a l y t i c a l f i n d i n g s c o n c e r n i n g e a c h i t e m w h i c h w i l l be t r e a t e d i n a c o n f i d e n t i a l manner. The f i n d i n g s w i l l be compared w i t h t h o s e from a group of r e f e r e e l a b o r a t o r i e s and t h e r e s u l t i n g d a t a w i l l be analyzed f o r long-range study purposes. Future

Directions for

Research

This leads to a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of the I n s t i t u t e s FY 1975 research plans. S e v e r a l of the p r o j e c t s d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r w i l l be c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h to c o m p l e t i o n . I d e a s f o r new r e s e a r c h a r e b e i n g considered. Above a l l , t h e I n s t i t u t e i n t e n d s t o continue the development of a n a t i o n a l l y coordinated program of r e s e a r c h which w i l l maximize the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of the f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e s to the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m and s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l . Of t h e r e s e a r c h o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e i n FY 1975 t h e I n s t i t u t e c u r r e n t l y f e e l s two a r e a s m e r i t serious consideration. 1

5

D e m o n s t r a t i n g Crime L a b o r a t o r y E f f e c t i v e n e s s . NILECJ i s d i r e c t i n g i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n i n a l l c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e program areas t o p r o j e c t s which have s t r o n g e v a l u a t i o n components. In v e r y b a s i c l a n g u a g e , the I n s t i t u t e n e e d s t o know "what w o r k s and what d o e s n ' t work." An a t t e m p t i s b e i n g made t o i d e n t i f y p r o g r a m s n a t i o n a l l y w h i ch a r e m a k i n g s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s to a c h i e v i n g the goals of the c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e system, t o d e s c r i b e and e v a l u a t e t h o s e p r o j e c t s , and t h e n t o o f f e r these s u c c e s s f u l programs t o a l l j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n the n a t i o n f o r p o s s i b l e adoption. Crime l a b o r a t o r y o p e r a t i o n s of h i g h q u a l i t y are c a n d i d a t e s f o r such e v a l u a t i o n s . As d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , t h e I n s t i t u t e has f u n d e d r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s t o develop c a n d i d a t e management e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . Such m e a s u r e s s h o u l d be v e r y h e l p f u l t o a l l c r i m e l a b o r a t o r i e s i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e and effectiveness. These measures have a l r e a d y been t e s t e d i n t h r e e s i t e s and b a s e l i n e d a t a h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t e d f o r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l m o n t h s i n t h e s e same l o c a t i o n s . The I n s t i t u t e i s now c o n s i d e r i n g the m e r i t s of g o i n g i n t o t h o s e and o t h e r l a b o r a t o r y s y s t e m s t o m e a s u r e t h e i m p a c t o f t h e c r i m e l a b o r a t o r y on t h e a c t i v i t i e s of l o c a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s , p r o s e c u t o r s , d e f e n s e a t t o r n e y s , j u d g e s and j u r o r s . Beeause the c r i m e l a b o r a t o r y c u r r e n t l y becomes i n v o l v e d i n P a r t I c r i m e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s so i n f r e q u e n t l y ( l e s s t h a n two



56

FORENSIC

SCIENCE

p e r c e n t o f s u c h c r i m e s i n many j u r i s d i c t i o n s ) , t h e p r o j e c t would i n v o l v e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f added crime scene s e a r c h and l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s r e s o u r c e s f o r t h e study period t o increase the r a t i o of crimes i n which p h y s i c a l evidence i s c o l l e c t e d and a n a l y z e d . I n so d o i n g , d a t a c o u l d be c o l l e c t e d w h i c h w o u l d demonstrate the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a c r i m e l a b o r a t o r y i n an a r e a where a r e a s o n a b l y h i g h r a t i o o f crime scenes were b e i n g p r o c e s s e d f o r p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e and t h e e v i d e n c e was r e c e i v i n g a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s b y q u a l i f i e d c r i m i n a l i s t s. Such s t u d i e s would generate i n f o r m a t i o n which c o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d t o t h o s e who a r e s k e p t i c a l o f t h e value of crime l a b o r a t o r i e s . The h y p o t h e s i s t h a t f o r e n s i c s c i e n c e l a b o r a t o r i e s c a n c o n t r i b u t e much more t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f o f f e n d e r s and t h e s o l u t i o n o f c r i m e s , i f t h e y were o n l y used more, s h o u l d be t h o r o u g h l y t e s t e d . Court Acceptance of S c i e n t i f i c Techniques. There c o n t i n u e t o b e p r o b l e m s o v e r t h e a d m i s s a b i l i t y o f new s c i e n t i f i c t e s t s and procedures i n c o u r t . Basically, judges s t i l l employ t h e c r i t e r i a used i n Frye v s . U n i t e d S t a t e s 293 F . 1013 ( D . C . C i r . 1923) , w h i c h r e q u i r e d t h a t new t e s t s m u s t g a i n g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c a c c e p t a n c e b e f o r e t h e y c a n be a d m i t t e d i n t o court. W h i l e t h e r e i s no f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m w i t h such c r i t e r i a , d i f f i c u l t i e s do a r i s e when an i n d i v i d u a l s c i e n t i s t o r e x p e r t p r e s e n t s i n f o r m a t i on t o a s i n g l e judge or court. Quite apart from t h e t e s t itself, the d e c i s i o n by t h e court i s i n f l u e n c e d by such v a r i a b l e s as t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and d e l i v e r y o f t h e e x p e r t , t h e competence o f t h e p r o s e c u t o r and defense a t t o r n e y , and t h e a b i l i t i e s o f t h e judge making t h e ruling. The j u d g e i s o f t e n p l a c ed i n a d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n b e c a u s e he i s w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e k n o w l e d g e t o decide i f any p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i q u e has g a i n e d " g e n e r a l scientific acceptance." T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a n e e d f o r an e s t a b l i s h e d p r o c e d u r e f o r e v a l u a t i n g new t e c h n i q u e s a n d d a t a f o r use i n c o u r t , from b o t h s c i e n t i f i c and l e g a l p e r s p e c tives. Such a procedure s h o u l d r e f l e c t t h e t h i n k i n g of b o t h p r o f e s s i o n s because t h e e x p e r t p o s s e s s e s t h e s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e s t and t h e j u r i s t w i l l be m a k i n g t h e u l t i m a t e d e c i s i o n o f admi s s a b i l i t y . C r i t e r i a s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d w h ich meet b o t h l e g a l and s c i e n t i f i c a c c e p t a n c e , and p r o c e d u r e s s h o u l d be p r o p o s e d b y w h i c h a n y new t e s t o r s e t o f d a t a c o u l d be e v a l u a t e d . One p o s s i b l e m e a n s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g s u c h criteria



6.

PETERSON

LEAA's

Research

Program

57

and p r o c e d u r e s w o u l d be i n t h e f o r m o f a s t a n d i n g committee composed o f l e a d i n g j u d g e s , a t t o r n e y s and scientists. This committee eventually could issue recommendations r e g a r d i n g t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f any s c i e n t i f i c technique f o r court use. Although not b i n d i n g on a n y c o u r t , t h e f i n d i n g s w o u l d c o n s t i t u t e an i m p a r t i a l a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e t e s t i n q u e s t i o n and p r o b a b l y would be welcomed by most courts i n the nation. P r o b l e m s such as t h o s e encountered i n recent years over v o i c e p r i n t techniques might be a v o i d e d and a l l t h e c o u r t s i n t h e country w o u l d have t h e b e n e f i t o f u s i n g an u n b i a s e d e v a l u a t i o n meeting both l e g a l and s c i e n t i f i c demands. Conclusion The above d i s c u s s i o n has h i g h l i g h t e d t h e f o r e n s i c science program a c t i v i t i e s of t h e National I n s t i t u t e o f Law E n f o r c e m e n t a n d C r i m i n a l J u s t i c e . Current research projects are addressing several critic al problem areas, i n c l u d i n g the education and t r a i n i n g needs o f s c i e n t i f i c p e r s o n n e l , t h e management and e v a l u a t i o n o f l a b o r a t o r y o p e r a t i o n s , and t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o no f p h y s i c a l evidence. E f f o r t s a r e b e i n g made t o e s t a b l i s h p r o g r a m s w h i ch a d d r e s s t h e m o s t s e r i ous p r o b l e m s i n the f i e l d and which r e f l e c t t h e best judgments o f f o r e n s i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s , educators and r e s e a r c h e r s . A l l f o r e n s i c s c i e n t i s t s are encouraged t o maintain an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t i n t h e p r o g r a m s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e and t o b r i n g c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m a r e as a n d new c o n e e p t s for research t o i t s attention.


Forensic Science - ACS Publications

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