F~ESTS, ince early times hu- ensure better use and conservation man communities of forests, and several programs and have been relying on projects have been launched to proand often abusing tect forests and to ensure their susforest l a n d s a n d tainable use. International and natrees. Forests provide tional governmental and private local communities organizations have played a signifiwith food, shelter, cant role in implementing projects medicinal plants, and in promoting a better percepfirewood, lumber, and other goods tion of the role of forests and trees. The overall situation, however, is and services including employment opportunities, income, and soil and alarming not only in the developing water system protection. They in- countries but also in the industrialspire poetry and literature and are ized world. Fires and acid deposition are still ravaging forest ecoused for recreation. During t h e past decades concern systems i n t h e Mediterranean about the fate of tropical forests and, countries and the temperate and bomore recently, about all types of for- real forests of Asia, Europe, and ests has grown. Strong arguments North America. A recent study prohave been raised about protecting duced by a researcher from the Intropical and nontropical forests ternational Institute of Applied Sysfrom exploitation and misuse; sav- tem Analysis indicates that by the ing old-growth forests: and reduc- year 2010 Europe could be losing ing consumption of firewood by lo- more than $29 billion a year in forcal populations. These movements est revenues because of atmoshave often been based on a narrow pheric depositions on forests. The forces changing the extent, or emotional analysis of the local realities. distribution, Many counBERNARD0 ZENTILL1 and quality of U.N.Conference on Environment forests in the tries have deand Development past are largely veloped new still at work tolegislation and Geneva. Switzerland regulations to day, although
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not always in the same area. The reduction of forest cover in Europe, for example, started in the Middle Ages and persisted until the 19th century and, in some countries, until the mid-1900s. The needs for ene m . for aericultural land. and foTurban-settlements and infrastructures were the basic factors of this deforestation. This same trend is found today in most developing countries, but it now happens much faster and more dramatically affects the livelihood of rural and urban people. In most of the developing countries the higher rates of deforestation started soon after the arrival of European settlers, who, in many cases, expanded needs for agricultural lands. Higher deforestation rates began in most cases since the 1950s or after World War 11. Faster and cheaper transport and the opening or expansion of international markets for mining and agriculture products as well as for timber have significantly speeded deforestation. The related increased production of cash c r o p s helped in opening lands traditionally covered by forests to agriculture production.
air pollution, the effect of population increase, and the much shorter time frame in which the process is developing in the “souW-accelerated by the introduction of modern machinery, transport, and commu1
wood markets and pricing mecbanisms, the development of reforestation and afforestation programs oriented toward producing raw material from fast-growing species, and the effects of using native or exotic soecies. [Afforestation is the pianting of forest trees on land that previously did not support forest.) Furthermore, existing methodologies to assess the value of the forests are based mainly on the value of the wood being produced; little is known of the value of the other goods and services produced by the forest. The recent interest in conserving biodiversity and in better understanding the role of forests in climate change is changing this pattern, but there is still a long way to go until these elements are incorporated into national planning systems worldwide and methodologies are available for better calculations of their economic significance. In order to redress the currant situation it would be necessary to reinforce action in forestry training and strengthen the capacity of national forbst institutions.
METHODOLOGIES TO ASSESS FOREST VALUE ARE BASED MAINLY ON THE VALUE OF THE WOOD PRODUCED; LITTLE IS KNOWN OF THE VALUE OFOTHERGOODS AND SERVICES PRODUCED BY THB, FOREST.
Not seeing the forest for the timber Many people view forests as wastelands or hunting grounds rather than as comprehensive systems of physical (soil, water, gases) a n d biological (plants and animals) components that benefit society by producing goods and services and moderating climate and water cycles. The world forests are subject to natural and anthropogenic pressures: climate changes; air, water and soil pollution; pests and fires; recreational needs; needs for more farmlands to produce food, fodder, or raw materials; and needs for timber, fuel, or other goods. Indirect pressures derive from the burden of the foreign debt on developing countries, the deleterious effects of some foreign loans and investments, con&tions ofaid and trade that promote unswtainable exploitation of natural renewable resources, and the like. These pressures have resulted in substantial forest loss. Probably the only new factors are
nicetions, combined with current institutional structures and land tenure patterns. For many years approaches to forests have centered around the timber being produced, the effects of the logging industry and foreign
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Current situation Amazingly, no precise information exists on the total area of world forests: the figures being used are an aggregation of figures from different sources that are based on varied definitions of trees, forests, forest land, and forest cover. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reported in early 1991 a global total forest cover of about 3624.7 million hectares distributed roughly as 25% in boreal forests, 21% in temperate forests, and 54% in tropical forests. A more recent interim report on tropical forests presented by F A 0 to the l o t h World Forestry Congress Baris, September 1991) indicates, on the basis of 8 7 countries surveyed, a total tropical forest area of 1714.8 million hectares and a rate of destruction of 16.0 million hectares per year (0.9% of the tropical forest world stock). FA0 further reports that loss of biomass in the tropical forests is occurring at a “significantly higher rate than the loss of area due to deforestation.” A report being prepared by the
United Nations European Economic Commission and FA0 on the forest cover of European countries should be available shortly. Accurate figures on forest cover in temperate developing countries are not yet available. Recent international efforts Even though many international governmental and nongovernmental organizations have been working in this area since the 1950s or 1960s, not until the late 1970s or early 1980s was there a major increase in action at the international level. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) included recommendations for the better conservation and management of forests. The FAO, jointly with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), presented in 1980 the results of the global assessment of tropical forests, which reported an annual loss of about 11 million hectares of tropical forests (equivalent to 0.6% of the total stock). In 1975 the FA0 launched the Tropical Forest Action Programme, which actually considered action in more than 88 countries. The original program has been criticized particularly by nongovernmental organ i z a t i o n s for not sufficiently addressing local populations in the formulation of national plans, or the role of forests in conserving biodiversity and in changing the climate. These organizations also complained that some of the national plans actually encouraged further deforestation. Even though several national programs are now in action, the overall orientation of the Tropical Forest Action Programme is currently being scrutinized and revised. Some of the major donor countries are also requesting fundamental changes. In 1983, under the sponsorship of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, tropical timber-producing countries and major consumer countries signed the International Tropical Timber Agreement and created in 1985 the International Tropical Timber Organization. Several organizations such as UNESCO, the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, the World Conservation Union, the World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly the World Wildlife Fund), Conservation International, and many others have launched
programs for the sustainable use a n d conservation of forest resources, focusing on the tropical countries. Unfortunately, a lack of interest in the situation of temperate forests in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America still exist. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research is promoting forest research and has established an international system focusing on forest research (CIFOR, the Center for International Forestry Research). This initiative should, however, be coupled with the reinforcement of forest research at the national level in most developing countries and should be oriented toward finding local solutions to cope with the increasing needs for forest products while ensuring conservation of significant portions of natural forest ecosystems. The International Union of Forest Research Organizations launched its Special Programme for Developing Countries in 1983. The program focused first i n Africa and expanded later to Latin America and more recently to Southeast Asia. Its activities are related to forest research and training. Several special events also have taken place recently: the International Conference on Forests and Trees (“Silva”) organized by the French Government (February 1986), the Ministerial Conference for the Protection of Forests in Europe (Strasbourg, December 1990), and the 10th World Forestry Congress held in Paris in September
ment, conservation, and sustainable development of all types of forests” and a program of action under the title “Agenda 21,” which is to be launched in 1993. The estimated cost of international funding for implementing this forest-related program is more than $6 billion per year-four times the current official development assistance. The five program areas are as follows: securing the multiple roles of trees, forests, and forest lands; protecting forests and promoting afforestation and reforestation; promoting a better utilization and value of trees, forests, and forest lands; assessment and monitoring of forest-related programs and processes; and international and regional cooperation. Some governments, particularly but not solely from the European Community, have been advocating discussion of a legally binding instrument for the sustainable use and conservation of all types of forests. (At this writing discussion has not been initiated.) The Fourth Session of the Preparatory Committee, held in New York March 2-April 3 , 1992, approved, following intensive negotiations, most of the final text of both the Forest Principles and Agenda 21, leaving some paragraphs to be negotiated in Rio de Janeiro. The possibility of further development of a legal instrument on forests is contained in an Agenda 2 1 paragraph.
1991.
UNCED: The Earth Summit This month’s Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro will address-among many other subjects-the problems affecting forests and the causes and effects of deforestation. In the four sessions of the UNCED Preparatory Committee forests have received increasing attention. The subject has expanded from tropical forests to all forest types in developing and developed countries, as well as the links among development, conservation of biodiversity, climate change, and the role forests and trees play in the quality of life of local, rural, and urban communities. At this late stage of the preparations for the Earth Summit governments are negotiating the final text of “a non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the manage-
Bernard0 Zentilli is senior forest advisor for UNCED in Switzerland. A Chilean forester, he has worked in private industry and in forest inventories, logging, and research and training at the Chilean Forest Institute. He later became the first Director of National Parks and Protected Areas. In 1975 he joined the F A 0 Environment Coordinating Unit.From 1980 to 1985 he worked with the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in Switzerland. From 1985 to 1990 he was senior program officer of the Forest Unit of U N E P in Nairobi. He joined the UNCED Secretariat in December 1990.
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